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Ethical behavior - Correct Answer ✅ Acting in ways consistent with what society and individuals typically think are good values. Ethical behavior tends to be good for business and involves demonstrating respect for key moral principles that include honesty, fairness, equality, dignity, diversity and individual rights. Anthropocentric - Correct Answer ✅ regarding humankind as the central or most important element of existence, especially as opposed to God or animals. "Human-centered" ethic or world view where human well-being or interests are considered to be all that matters, everything else being valued only as a means Biocentric - Correct Answer ✅ All beings have equal intrinsic value. Human beings have no greater value than any other creature, for we are just ordinary citizens in the biotic community, with no more rights than amoebae or bacteria. "Life-centred" where the well-being of each living thing is considered to be all that matters, everything else being valued only as a means to that end. Example: Taylor. The term is also used for ethics that value life itself, or biosphere, where the interests of individuals are valued largely or solely for the sake of the biosphere. Example: Callicott. Thus, biocentrism may be individualistic or holistic
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Ecocentric - Correct Answer ✅ a philosophy or perspective that places intrinsic value on all living organisms, their natural environment and abiotic environment (ie rivers, ecosystems), regardless of their perceived usefulness or importance to human beings. The view advocated by Aldo Leopold in his highly influential essay "The Land Ethic" (1949), that nature itself, not only humans or sentient creatures, has inherent moral value Deep ecology - Correct Answer ✅ is an ecological and environmental philosophy promoting the inherent worth of non- human living beings regardless of their instrumental utility to human needs, plus a radical restructuring of modern human societies in accordance with such ideas. A term coined by Norwegian philosopher Aarne Naess who at 88 is the world's oldest environmental philosopher (he also calls it "ecosophy"). Deep ecologists ask us to look into deeply into our relationship with nature; to develop self-realization through a feeling of oneness with nature; to reject materialism; and to go beyond the concerns of "shallow" or "reformist" anthropocentric concerns about issues such as pollution. There is no satisfactory definition of "deep ecology"; Devall and Sessions present the most complete account.
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Utilitarianism Environmental - Correct Answer ✅ ethics surrounds the ethical relationship between people and the world we live in. Utilitarianism is recognized as a teleological theory, moral actions are the outcomes of an actions opposed to the action itself. A moral theory that says that what is moral right is whatever produces the greatest overall amount of pleasure (hedonistic utilitarianism) or happiness (eudaimonistic utilitarianism). Some utilitarians (act utilitarians) claim that we should weigh the consequences of each individual action, while others (rule utilitarians) maintain that we should look at the consequences of adopting particular rules of conduct. Positive utilitarianism attempts to maximize the amount of happiness, pleasure, preferences, etc, as in the maxim, 'The greatest good for the greatest number.' Negative utilitarianism is the attempt to minimize the amount of misery. An action is right if and only if it produces at least as much good for all affected by the action as any alternative action the agent could do instead. Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethic. Example: Singer. Utilitarian conservation vs. biocentric preservation - Correct Answer ✅ biocentric preservation: a philosophy that emphasizes the fundamental right of living organisms to exist and to pursue their own goods.
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Utilitarian conservation: philosophy that resources should be used for the greater good for the greatest number for the longest time. Anthropocentric vs. non-anthropocentric ethical approaches - Correct Answer ✅ Anthropocentrism: the view that the nonhuman world has value only because it directly or indirectly serves human interests Nonanthropocentrism: denial of anthropocentrism; the view that it isn‟t the case that the nonhuman world has value only because it directly or indirectly serves human interests. Instrumental or extrinsic values vs. intrinsic values - Correct Answer ✅ Instrumental Value: A value that is attributed to something as a means to something that is considered to have intrinsic value. A kind of extrinsic value. Something that has value only because it helps achieve something else, or that you value only for its use; you may value a desk instrumentally, because it helps you achieve what you want to. Intrinsic Value, Intrinsic Worth: A value that is attributed to something as an end and not just as a means; is believed to have value in and for itself, for its own sake. Intrinsic value is
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setting up the National Parks movement via his influence on the first President Roosevelt. His heritage is global, because NP systems were set up in many countries (including NZ) in imitation of the American model. Muir and Pinchot fought many battles over American environmental policy, which Pinchot eventually won. Gifford Pinchot - Correct Answer ✅ U. S. Forest Service: (1865- 1946). Pinchot (pronounced PinSHOW) pioneered the American conservation movement, in the sense of "wise use" of forests and other natural resources for the material benefit of presnt generations, though with an eye to the future. He founded both the American Forest Service and the Yale Forestry School. He strongly opposed "lock up" preservation policies and his views largely prevailed over those of Muir. Forestry policies in many countries, including NZ, were greatly influenced by Pinchot's views. Aldo Leopold: Land Ethic - Correct Answer ✅ was a forester, wildlife manager and, later, academic. He is often seen as the Father of Environmental Ethics and his words as Holy Writ (see Callicott, text, 124). Despite Callicott's claims, Leopold was not, in my opinion, a philosopher - but he was a "founding father" of environmental ethics.
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Garrett Hardin - Correct Answer ✅ The Tragedy of the Commons: Thought experiment in which demonstrates that any ethics is mistaken if it allows a growing population to steadily increase its exploitation of the ecosystem which supports it. An Abstract of "A General Statement of Hardin's Tragedy of the Commons" Rachel Carson: "Silent Spring" - Correct Answer ✅ Rachel Carson's 'Silent Spring,' a critical look at pollution in the United States, jump-starts the environmental movement. Carson, a birdwatcher, discovered that heavy use of pesticides was killing off birds and making the forests 'silent.' She also wrote about harmful chemicals used for defoliation in the Vietnam War. Arne Naess: Deep Ecology - Correct Answer ✅ Naess saw two different forms of environmentalism, not necessarily incompatible with each other. One he called the "long-range deep ecology movement" and the other, the "shallow ecology movement." The word "deep" in part referred to the level of questioning of our purposes and values when arguing in environmental conflicts. The "deep" movement involves deep questioning, right down to fundamental root causes. The short- term, shallow approach stops before the ultimate level of fundamental change, often promoting technological fixes (e.g.
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microbiologist at the University of Massachusetts. In the past 15-20 years, many of the mechanisms by which Earth self- regulates have been identified. As one example, it has been shown that cloud formation over the open ocean is almost entirely a function of the metabolism of oceanic algae that emit a large sulfur molecule (as a waste gas) that becomes the condensation nuclei for raindrops. Previously, it was thought that cloud formation over the ocean was a purely chemical/physical phenomenon. The cloud formation not only helps regulate Earth's temperature, it is an important mechanism by which sulfur is returned to terrestrial ecosystems. Formation/role of the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) - Correct Answer ✅ An administrative agency created by executive order in 1970. The EPA is charged with conducting and evaluating research, monitoring environmental quality, setting standards, enforcing those standards, assisting the states in meeting standards and goals, and educating the public Environmental justice - Correct Answer ✅ EPA defines Environmental Justice (EJ) as the "fair treatment for people of all races, cultures, and incomes, regarding the development of environmental laws, regulations, and policies." Fair treatment means that no group of people, including a racial, ethnic, or
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socioeconomic group, should bear a disproportionate share of the negative environmental consequences resulting from industrial, municipal, and commercial operations or the execution of federal, state, local, and tribal programs and policies. Environmental racism - Correct Answer ✅ A violation of the principles of environmental justice wherein communities of color bear a disproportionate burden of toxic dumping while being systematically excluded from discussions and decision- making concerning matters of environmental policy. Throughout the U.S., and the rest of the world, communities of color are adversely affected by industrial and agricultural toxins, dirty water and dirty air, and the placement of incinerators, waste dumping facilities, and waste storage facilities. Environmental racism is a form of institutional racism. Environmental injustice around the world - Correct Answer ✅ Throughout the U.S., and the rest of the world, communities of color are adversely affected by industrial and agricultural toxins, dirty water and dirty air, and the placement of incinerators, waste dumping facilities, and waste storage facilities. Environmental racism is a form of institutional racism
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President Nixon Signs NEPA January 1, 1970 - Correct Answer ✅ The bill forms the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) to advise the President on the environment and review federal agencies' Environmental Impact Statements, required for projects that would affect the environment. First Earth Day April 22, 1970 - Correct Answer ✅ More than 20 million Americans participate in one of the largest grassroots community service movements in our history. Earth Day is now celebrated every year by almost 1 billion people worldwide. Official Formation of EPA - Correct Answer ✅ Following President Richard Nixon's 'Reorganization Plan No. 3' issued in July 1970, EPA is officially established on December 2nd, 1970. The agency consolidates federal research, monitoring and enforcement activities in a single agency. EPA's mission is to protect human health by safeguarding the air we breathe, water we drink and land on which we live. Administrator William D. Ruckelshaus December 3, 1970 - Correct Answer ✅ William D. Ruckelshaus serves as the first head of the Environmental Protection Agency under President Richard Nixon. During his early tenure he oversaw a seven-
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month hearing on DDT, a carcinogenic pesticide, after which he instituted a ban of DDT. DDT was the pesticide featured in Rachel Carson's 1962 book 'Silent Spring' as a threat to wildlife, and perhaps to humans. Clean Air Act of 1970 December 31, 1970 - Correct Answer ✅ Congress authorizes EPA to set national air quality, auto emission, and anti-pollution standards. The standards led to the production of the catalytic converter in 1973 by New Jersey's Engelhard Corporation. In its first 20 years, the Clean Air Act prevented more than 200,000 premature deaths by significantly reducing the presence of lead, sulfur dioxide and other harmful pollutants in the air. EPA Takes National Action on Air Quality April 30, 1971 - Correct Answer ✅ Administrator Ruckelshaus announces national standards on six common pollutants: sulfur oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. This was four years ahead of the regulation deadline set by the Clean Air Act. EPA Bans DDT June 14, 1972 - Correct Answer ✅ After public concerns about the health effects of the widely-used pesticide
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their public water routinely and notify their customers if water was not up to EPA standards. Clean Water Act of 1977 December 28, 1977 - Correct Answer ✅ President Jimmy Carter signs the Clean Water Act, amending the 1972 version. The Act stressed the importance of toxic pollutant control. A construction grant over five years created thousands of jobs, aided state and local planning, and encouraged experimentation with new water treatment methods. Environmental Justice Movement Begins September 15, 1982 - Correct Answer ✅ A PCB landfill protest in Warren County, North Carolina - a predominantly poor, African-American area - launches the environmental justice movement. Environmental Justice is the fair treatment and involvement of all people, regardless of race or income, in decisions on development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental policies. Copenhagen Accord - Correct Answer ✅ a political agreement struck by world leaders at the 2009 U.N. Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, calls on participating countries to pledge specific actions they will undertake to mitigate
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greenhouse gas emissions. This represents the first time ever that all of the world's major economies have offered explicit international climate pledges. Biocentric/ecocentric preservation vs anthropologic - Correct Answer ✅ Anthropocentrism is the idea that the earth and its resources exists for human consumption. People who hold this view believe that we ought to protect the earth for future generations. Anthropocentrism often focuses on fixing the problem of limited resources through the use of technology rather than a reduction in consumption. Biocentrism views animals as important beings. Stereotypically, biocentrics are against harming other life forms for their own ends - many of them are vegetarians or vegans. Ecocentrism holds that humans are only one part of the complicated system that is the earth. Ecocentrism believes that everything has intrinsic value and emphasized the interconnectedness of all life. metaethics - Correct Answer ✅ In philosophy, metaethics— sometimes known as analytic ethics—is the branch of ethics
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understanding that separate parts of the ecosystem (including humans) function as a whole. Gaia Theory - Correct Answer ✅ The Gaia hypothesis is an ecological hypothesis proposing that the biosphere and the physical components of the Earth (atmosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere) are closely integrated to form a complex interacting system that maintains the climatic and biogeochemical conditions on Earth in a preferred homeostasis. Originally proposed by James Lovelock as the earth feedback hypothesis, it was named the Gaia Hypothesis after the Greek supreme goddess of Earth. The hypothesis is frequently described as viewing the Earth as a single organism. Lovelock and other supporters of the idea now call it Gaia theory, regarding it as a scientific theory and not mere hypothesis, since they believe it has passed predictive tests Environmental Justice - Correct Answer ✅ is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.
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John Muir -The Yosemite vs Gifford Pinchot - Correct Answer ✅ The Fight for Conservation: Muir devoted most of his time to the preservation of the Western forests. He petitioned the U.S. Congress for the National Park bill that was passed in 1890, establishing Yosemite National Park. The spiritual quality and enthusiasm toward nature expressed in his writings has inspired readers, including presidents and congressmen, to take action to help preserve large nature areas. Today Muir is referred to as the "Father of the National Parks". Back at the turn of the 20th Century Gifford Pinchot and John Muir had radically contrasting views of how to manage America's wild lands and they worked tirelessly lobbying Congress and convincing Presidents to agree with them to start protecting open space. Muir promoted preservation and Pinchot advocated for conservation. Erin Brockovich - Correct Answer ✅ as instrumental in building a case against the Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) of California in 1993. The case alleged contamination of drinking water with hexavalent chromium (also written as "chromium VI", "Cr-VI" or "Cr-6") in the southern California town of Hinkley. At the center of the case was a facility, the Hinkley compressor
