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C h a p t e r 9
Escape, Avoidance and
Punishment
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Escape vs. Avoidance
2 Escape behaviorà performance of the behavior terminates the aversive stimulus, Avoidance behavioràperformance of the behavior prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring. e.g. We escape from the rain when we run indoors after it has started; we avoid the rain when we head indoors before it has started. One first learns to escape from an aversive stimulus and then to avoid it.
Learned Helplessness
3 Time Latency for jumping behavior Safe Shock A rat is placed in a chamber divided by a low barrier. A stimulus such as a light, is presented for 10 seconds, followed by a mild electric shock. The rat can escape the shock by climbing over the barrier to the other side of the compartment. Crossing the barrier is then negatively reinforced by the removal of shock.
Escape vs. Avoidance
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Escape vs. Avoidance
5 Shock is preceded by the presentation of a light. It means that light is a warning which signals that a shock is about to occur. As the rat learns to associate the light with the shock, it will begin crossing the barrier whenever the light is presented and before the shock begins. Light Shock
Escape vs. Avoidance
6 In similar fashion, we might first learn to escape from an upsetting conversation with a racist acquaintance by inventing an excuse for leaving. After a few experiences, however, we might begin actively avoiding that individual before any encounter. By doing so, we avoid having to endure any exposure to that person’s racist views. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fwzEbzgPszk Behavior that terminates an aversive stimulus is called _______behavior, whereas behavior that prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring is called _____ behavior. Typically, one first learns to __________ from an aversive stimulus, and then to _______________ it.
Escape vs. Avoidance
7 Julio initially takes vitamin C whenever he has a cold, in the hope that it will shorten the duration of his symptoms. Feeling that this is effective, he begins taking it daily in the hope that it will keep him from contracting a cold. Julio initially took the vitamin C to (avoid/escape) _________ the symptoms of a cold; he later took it to ___________ the symptoms of a cold. In the shuttle avoidance procedure described previously, the rat first learns to ____________ from the shock, with the _______________ acting as the SD^ for the behavior. The rat later learns to ________ the shock, with the ____________ acting as the SD^ for the behavior.
Two-Process Theory of Avoidance
8 Escape behavior is relatively easy to understand. The rat moves from a clearly aversive situation to a nonaversive situation. But the motivation underlying avoidance behavior is less apparent. When climbing over a barrier to avoid shock, the rat seems to be moving from one nonaversive situation (no shock) to another nonaversive situation (no shock). So, no aversive stimulus! where is the reinforcer here? Is it possible to occur conditioning without reinforcer?
Two-Process Theory of Avoidance
13 A possible answer comes from ‘anxiety conservation hypothesis’. Avoidance responses usually occur so quickly that there is insufficient exposure to the CS for the conditioned fear to fully extinguish—that is, a good deal of the conditioned fear is conserved because exposures to the CS are too brief for extinction to take place. 2 nd^ problem about the theory: after repeated avoidance trials, animals appeared to show no evidence of fear but continued to make the avoidance response anyway. If the animals were no longer afraid of the CS, how could avoidance of the CS have been negatively reinforced by a reduction in fear?
Two-Process Theory of Avoidance
14 Levis argued that although animals in avoidance experiments may become significantly less fearful with experience, there is no evidence that they become completely nonfearful. In fact, evidence suggests that if an animal completely loses its fear of the aversive CS, then, just as two-process theory predicts, the avoidance response stops. But as long as some fear remains, the avoidance response continues, suggesting that fear reduction is still functioning as a negative reinforcer for the behavior.
Two-Process Theory of Avoidance
15 Since it’s too persistent, how can we extinguish it? ¡ Presenting the shock in the ‘safe’ part. ¡ Blocking the avoidance response. (a long barrier works.)
Avoidance Conditioning and Phobias
16 examining the role of avoidance learning in phobic development. There are 2 limitations in applying models of experimental avoidance to human phobias. FIRST; In experimental avoidance conditioning, the animal avoids the aversive US (avoiding shock). In human phobias, however, people avoid the CS. E.g. A person who has a fear of elevators because he was once trapped in an elevator does not simply avoid being trapped in an elevator; he avoids elevators altogether.
Avoidance Conditioning and Phobias
17 SECOND; The avoidance behavior seems to condition less readily than does avoidance behavior in a phobia. It requires at least a few pairings of the CS and the US. By contrast, human phobias often require only a single, brief conditioning trial to produce an avoidance response that is strong and persistent. For example, a very strong and persistent dog phobia may develop following a single dog attack.
Avoidance Conditioning and Phobias
18 Then, Stampfl (1987) proposed that an adequate experimental analogue of a human phobia would require (1) the reliable establishment of a fear response with only a single, brief pairing of the CS and US, (2) subsequent avoidance of the CS as well as the US, and (3) the occurrence of successful avoidance on 100% of trials. Stampfl ’s (1987) procedure focuses on the fact that human phobics typically make the avoidance response early in the chain of events leading up to the feared stimulus. ¡ E.g. a person with an elevator phobia will plan his day well ahead of time so that he will not be faced with any pressure to take an elevator.
Avoidance Conditioning and Phobias
19 However, Stampfl designed an apparatus. Each rat was first allowed to explore the alleyway. Rats prefers dark (black compartment). The rat was then given a foot shock while in the black compartment. The rat ran to the far end of the alleyway. Three minutes later, a conveyor belt was turned on that began to slowly carry the rat toward the dark compartment.
Avoidance Conditioning and Phobias
20 During this first trial, most rats waited until they reached the black sidewall area of the apparatus before running back to the far end. When they did run back to the far end, the conveyor belt stopped for a 3-minute period (photocells). The conveyor belt then started up again, and the procedure was repeated. This initial session lasted 2 hours. During the second session, the response requirement for stopping the conveyor belt was increased from FR 1 to FR 10 (the rat had to run back and cross the photocells 10 times before the conveyor belt would stop).
Types of Punishment
25 Another problem is that parents often use time-outs that are too long. The aim of time-out is to facilitate the development of more appropriate behaviors. Those appropriate behaviors need to be reinforced. For time-out procedure, one does not have to clearly identify a specific reinforcer before implementing the procedure.
Types of Punishment
26 Response cost is the removal of a specific reinforcer following the occurrence of a problem behavior. E.g. Receiving a fine (which leads to loss of money) for speeding or taking a child’s toys away for playing too roughly. First. you must clearly identify a reinforcer which probably will have an impact on behavior. Moreover, one can easily modify the severity of the punishment to suit the behavior.
Types of Punishment
27 When Bobbi started to scream very loudly, her mother turned off the television program that Bobbi was watching. Bobbi’s mother is attempting to apply a (response cost/ time-out) _______ procedure. When Bobbi started to scream very loudly, Bobbi’s mother made her sit in the corner for a minute. Bobbi’s mother is attempting to apply a (response cost/time-out) _________ procedure.
Types of Punishment
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Other differentiations (1):
¡ Intrinsic punishment is punishment that is an inherent aspect of the behavior being punished. In other words, the activity itself is punishing. ¡ E.g. Watching an upsetting television show is intrinsically punishing if you stop watching such shows in the future because of their upsetting nature. ¡ Extrinsic punishment is punishment that is not an inherent aspect of the behavior being punished. Yet, the activity is followed by a separate event that serves to punish the activity if it subsequently reduces how frequently you do the behavior. ¡ E.g. after lighting up a cigarette, being accused.
Types of Punishment
29 Other differentiations (2): ¡ Primary (or unconditioned) punisher is an event that is innately punishing. E.g. Electric shock, intense heat, and loud noise. ¡ Secondary (or conditioned) punisher is an event that has become punishing because it has in the past been associated with some other punisher. The bad taste of rotting food will likely, for most people, function as a (primary/secondary) ________ punisher, while a restaurant that has served such food will function as a ______ punisher.
Problems with the Use of Punishment
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- Punishment of an inappropriate behavior does not directly strengthen the occurrence of appropriate behavior. It may even result in a general suppression of behavior.
- The person delivering the punishment could become an SD for punishment, with the result that the unwanted behavior is suppressed only when that person is present.
- Punishment might simply teach the individual to avoid the person who delivered the punishment.
- Punishment is likely to elicit a strong emotional response.
- Punishment can sometimes elicit an aggressive reaction.
Problems with the Use of Punishment
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- The use of punishment, through the process of modeling, could teach the person that punishment is an acceptable means of controlling behavior. e.g. children who are abused will sometimes (but not always) begin to abuse others.
- Because punishment often has an immediate effect in stopping an unwanted behavior, the use of punishment is often strongly reinforced.
Effective Use of Punishment
32 There are some criteria to meet for an effective punishment.
- As much as possible, punishment should be immediate rather than delayed.
- Punishment should consistently follow each occurrence of the unwanted behavior.
- Punishment should be intense enough to suppress the target behavior.
- Occurence of punishment shouldn’t be signalled by any other stimuli in the environment.
11/25/ 37 Muenzinger Punisher used as a SD 1st Group (learn discrimination) Goal Goal No Reward Reward Simple discrimination 11/25/ 38 Muenzinger 2nd Group (reinforcement+punishment) Goal Goal Electric shock Reward Correct response à reward Wrong response à punishment More effective learning compared to 1st group 11/25/ 39 Muenzinger 3rd Group Goal Goal NO Reward NO Electric shock Reward SD à Electric shock “I’ll turn right, get shocked, and then get the food.” Electric shock Systematic pairing: Shock-Food (right box) NO Shock-NO Food (left box) Shock becomes a SD^ for reward. Result: more effective learning than 1st groups. Equal to 2nd group. Correct response à punisher+reward Wrong response à nothing 11/25/ 40 Muenzinger For example: Spoiled kid. Reaction of mother during day: beating.. Reaction of father when get home at evening: getting angry at mother What is SD^ here? Result: Although the kid is beaten by the mother, spoiled behaviors are reinforced by the father. Beaten by mother is the SD^ for kid. Mother is beatingà father is rewarding Mother is NOT beatingà father is NOT rewarding Systematic pairing! In this sense, moderate punishers are not functional! Do not eliminate unwanted behaviors. They only work like discrimination, not like a punishment.
11/25/ 41 General Conclusion With mild punishers, behavior is recovered earlier. With severe punishers, behavior is recovered later. With much much severe punishers, behavior is NOT recovered, do not come back! Response Time When you apply punishment, you obtain response supression. àMild àSevere àVery very severe
Theories of Punishment
42 Conditioned Suppression Theory (Skinner, 1938). Although punishment can quickly suppress a behavior, the behavior often quickly recovers when the punishment is withdrawn. It is because punishment generates an emotional response that tends to suppress any ongoing appetitive behavior. Punishment does not weaken a behavior but instead produces an emotional response. e.g. when the rat is shocked for pressing a lever that produces food, it becomes so upset that it loses interest in the food and therefore does not press the lever to obtain it. If, however, the shock is withdrawn, the rat resumes lever pressing as soon as it calms down.
Theories of Punishment
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Skinner concluded that punishment is an ineffective
means for producing a lasting change in behavior. However, he used a relatively weak form of punishment. Subsequent research revealed that more intense forms of punishment, such as strong electric shocks, are capable of suppressing behavior for much longer periods of time.
Theories of Punishment
44 Avoidance Theory of Punishment. Punishment actually involves a type of avoidance conditioning. In the shuttle box, behavior of doing “anything other than lever pressing” reinforced by shock avoidance in a punishment-of- lever-pressing situation. Punishment does not directly weaken a behavior. It simply replaces the punished behavior with an avoidance response of some sort.
Learned Helplessness
49 They are neighbours but can not see each other! SD:^ light LightàShock Pressing the panelàoffset of shock (3rd group can not learn this association) When shock was turned off for the dog itself in 2nd^ condition, it also turned off the shock for its partner dog in the other condition (3rd^ condition). The dog in the escapable-shock condition had control over the shocks while the dog in the inescapable-shock did not. In the 2nd experimental setting, there was a barrier. learn to avoid shock by jumping over a barrier, however 3rd group can not learn avoidance learning. They made no effort to escape the shock. Due to the uncontrollable punishment for 3rd group. lack of contingency
Learned Helplessness
50 Time Latency for jumping behavior àdogs which were yoked (to the 2nd group) à2nd group which learned how to avoid. There was a barrier which prevents running away from the shock. But, just by chance, touching to a panel on the barrier with their nose, the block was gone. àNaive group (in their learning history, there is NO any uncontrollable, unpredictable learning)
Learned Helplessness
51 It’s a headache for behaviorists. Even the 3rd group get the reinforcer, why doesn’t avoidance learning occur? Answer: no connection is formed. Because of what behavior, the electric shock is gone? They can not learn this. Maybe at that time point, the dog was standing and looking at the ceiling or doing anything else when the elecktric shock was gone. Absence of shock is related to what? Loss of control over one’s environment, even when temporary, is very stressful and anxiety producing. Aversive events that occur outside of one’s control are much more stressful and arousing. Such uncontrollable and unpredictable events may be the most common source of neurotic behaviors.
Learned Helplessness
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Is this valid only for punishment? Nope. For reward,
it’s called ‘learned indolence’ (insensitivity)
Punishment: a child who is beaten constantly.
Reinforcement: a mom who always brings chocolate
for her child every night.
Learned Helplessness
53 The original experiments on learned helplessness that dogs that had first been exposed to inescapable shock had (no difficulty/diffi culty) ________learning an escape response when later exposed to (escapable/inescapable) ________ shock. It seemed as though these dogs had learned that there (is/is not) _________a contingency between their behavior and the offset of shock. This effect can be overcome by (forcing/enticing) _________ the dogs to make an escape response. As well, dogs that have had previous exposure to escapable shock are (more/less) _________ susceptible to becoming helpless when later exposed to inescapable shock. Learned helplessness may account for various difficulties in humans, including the clinical disorder known as d__________.
