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English Grammar and Translation
Question Tags
What are Question Tags?
Question tags are a type of small questions that are added at the end of a sentence. They are used in spoken English to keep a conversation going or to confirm information. Question tags are not typically used in formal written English.
Using Question Tags
Use a positive tag with a negative sentence, and vice versa. When the main sentence has an auxiliary verb, repeat it in the question tag. Example: "You haven't got a brother, have you?" "It's a very lovely day, isn't it?" When the main sentence does not have an auxiliary verb, use "do", "does", or "did" in the question tag. Example: "My brother gave you a lift, didn't he?" When the main sentence has "I am", use "aren't I" in the question tag. Example: "I am too skinny, aren't I?" After "Let's", use "shall we?" in the question tag. Example: "Let's have another coffee, shall we?" After an imperative, use "will you?" in the question tag. Example: "Close the window, will you?"
Special Cases
Negative Adverbs : Adverbs like "never", "rarely", "seldom", "hardly", "barely", and "scarcely" have a negative sense. When these appear in a positive statement, the question tag is positive.
Example: "Peter rarely goes to the disco, does he?"
Same-way Questions : It is possible to use a positive-positive or negative-negative structure in question tags to express interest, surprise, or anger, rather than to ask a real question.
Example: "(interest) Oh, this is your new car, is it?" "(surprise) So, you don't like my new haircut, don't you?"
Reported Speech
Indirect Speech
When reporting what someone has said, we usually use reported (indirect) speech instead of the speaker's exact words (direct speech). The structure of the sentence changes depending on whether you are transforming a statement, question, or request.
Transforming Statements
When transforming statements, you may need to change: - Pronouns - Present tense verbs (third person singular) - Place and time expressions - Tenses (backshift)
Pronouns
In reported speech, the pronouns may need to change depending on who is speaking. - Example: "My mum doesn't have time today." → "She says that her mum doesn't have time today."
Tenses
No Backshift If the introductory clause is in the Simple Present (e.g. "He says"), the tense does not change, but the form of the present tense verb may need to change (third person singular). - Example: "I speak English." → "He says that he speaks English."
Backshift If the introductory clause is in the Simple Past (e.g. "He said"), the tense must change. This is called backshift. - Example: "I am happy." → "He said that he was happy."
Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Transformations
| Direct Speech | Indirect Speech | | --- | --- | | Future "be going to" | Simple Past | | Future Simple "will" | Past Continuous | | Imperative | Past Perfect | | "May" | Past Perfect Continuous | | "Would", "could", "might", "should", "ought to" | Doesn't change | | "Now" | Doesn't change | | "Tonight" | Then | | "Yesterday" | That day | | "The day before yesterday" | That night | | "Last week/month/year" | The week/month/year before | | "Ago" | Before | | "Tomorrow" | The next/following day | | "The day after tomorrow" | In two days' time | | "Next week/month/year" | The following week/month/year | | "Here" | There |
Main Clauses Connected with "and" or "but"
If two complete main clauses are connected with "and" or "but", put "that" after the conjunction. Example: "I saw her but she didn't see me." → "He said that he had seen her but that she hadn't seen him."
b. Indirect Questions with "is/are" : - Introductory phrase + question word + subject + verb - Example: "Could you tell me where Market Street is?"
c. Indirect Questions with Yes/No Questions : - For questions that can be answered with yes/no, we use "if" or "whether" instead of a question word. - Example: "I wonder if/whether they like me."
d. Indirect Questions with "do/does/did" : - In direct questions, we use auxiliary verbs like "do/does/did". In the indirect question, remove the auxiliary and conjugate the main verb. - Example: "What time does the bank open?" → "Do you know what time the bank opens?" - Example: "Why did you move to Europe?" → "I was wondering why you moved to Europe."
Tense Changes in Indirect Questions
If the reported question refers to a past situation, the verb in the reported question clause should be in the past. If the reported question refers to a permanent or ongoing situation, the verb can remain in the present. When a direct question using a future verb form is reported, the future form of the question clause becomes a conditional or a future-in-the- past.
Time Expressions in Indirect Questions
The moment is often not the same as when the original question was asked, so it is often necessary to change the adverb of time to an adverb that expresses a relative concept of time. Examples: "tomorrow" → "the following day", "yesterday" → "the day before"
Phrasal Verbs
What are Phrasal Verbs?
Phrasal verbs are a type of multi-word verb that consist of a basic verb plus another word or words, which can be prepositions and/or adverbs.
Types of Multi-Word Verbs
Single-word Verb : Look (to direct your eyes in a certain direction) Prepositional Verbs : Look after (take care of) Phrasal Verbs : Look up (search for information in a book) Phrasal-Prepositional Verbs : Look forward to (anticipate with pleasure)
Prepositional Verbs
Prepositional verbs are made up of a verb + preposition and cannot be separated. Example: "We must say 'look after the baby', but we cannot say 'look the baby after'."
Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs are made up of a verb + adverb and can be intransitive (get up, break down) or transitive (put off, turn down). When phrasal verbs are transitive, the two parts can be separated. If the direct object is a pronoun, the phrasal verb must be separated. Example: "They turned my offer down." "They turned it down."
Phrasal-Prepositional Verbs
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are made up of a verb + adverb + preposition. They are always transitive and cannot be separated.
Thinking of Phrasal Verbs as Vocabulary
It's best to think of phrasal verbs as individual vocabulary items, as they often have a one-word equivalent. Example: "come across" = "encounter" = "incontrare per caso" / "imbattersi"
Verb Patterns - Gerunds and Infinitives
Using the Infinitive with "to"
After certain verbs: verb + to + infinitive Example: "We decided to go away." After a noun derived from those verbs: noun + to + infinitive Example: "I think his decision to give up his job was stupid." After an object: verb + object + to + infinitive Example: "We expected her to be late." To show purpose: "I came to London to study."
Using the Bare Infinitive (without "to")
After "let", "make", and (sometimes) "help" Example: "She let us leave early." After some verbs of perception (see, watch, hear, notice, feel, sense) Example: "I watched her walk away." After expressions with "why" Example: "Why go out the night before an exam?"
Tell (someone) a Lie, Tell (someone) the
Truth, Tell the Future, Tell the Time
Telling Someone a Lie, Telling Someone the Truth
In these situations, we cannot use the verb "say." We must use the verb "tell" instead.
Examples: - Tell (someone) a lie - Tell (someone) the truth
Telling the Future, Telling the Time
We also use the verb "tell" in the following situations: - Tell the future (= to know what the future will bring) - Tell the time (= know how to read a clock)
Reported Questions
We cannot use "say" or "tell" with reported questions.
Examples: - He asked if I wanted to come. (NOT "He said if I wanted to come") - My husband asked what I wanted to do. (NOT "My husband told what I wanted to do.")
Make or Do
Using "Make"
We use "make" when we create, build, or produce something. Example: My mum makes a delicious chocolate cake.
We also use "make" to indicate the origin of a product or the materials used to make something. We use "make" to indicate a reaction. Example: Reading the novel "The green mile" makes me cry.
We usually use "make" when we talk about drinks, meals, and after certain nouns concerning plans or decisions. Examples: - I need to make the hotel reservation. - He is very good in making cocktails.
Using "Do"
We use "do" for general activities. In these cases, "do" is often used with words like: "something," "nothing," "anything," or "everything." Example: What did you do last night? I didn't do anything.
Note: "What do you do?" means "What is your job?", not "What are you doing now?"
We use "do" when we talk about work, chores, jobs, or tasks in general (we do not produce any physical objects). Example: Do your homework before dinner.
We also use "do" to replace a verb when the meaning is clear and obvious. Example: I need to do my nails (do = manicure).
Fixed Expressions with Do and Make
The text provides various fixed expressions and examples using "do" and "make."
The Simple Past Tense
When to Use the Simple Past Tense
The Simple Past Tense is used to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. We use the simple past when:
The event is in the past. The event is completely finished. We say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event.
We normally use the Simple Past to tell a story. We may use other tenses to 'set the scene,' but we use the past simple tense for the action.
The simple past tense in Italian corresponds to the Imperfetto (for actions repeated in the past), Passato remoto, and Passato prossimo (both for actions completed in a short time, or longer actions or situations). Examples:
- It was very hot yesterday. - I spent all my childhood in Rome.
Formation of the Simple Past Tense
The simple past tense in regular verbs is formed by adding -ED to the infinitive (only -D if they end with an "-e").
There are specific rules for verbs ending in -Y, monosyllabic verbs, bisyllabic verbs, and verbs ending in -L or -C.
Irregular verbs vary considerably in their Simple Past form and must be learned by heart.
Negative, Interrogative, and Negative-Interrogative Forms
The negative form of regular and irregular verbs is formed with DID+NOT+INFINITIVE. Example: I didn't work.
The interrogative form of regular and irregular verbs is formed with DID+SUBJECT+INFINITIVE. Example: Did you work?
The negative-interrogative form of regular and irregular verbs is formed with DIDN'T+SUBJECT+INFINITIVE. Example: Didn't you work?
The Past Continuous (or Past Progressive)
When to Use the Past Continuous
The past continuous is used for past actions that continued for some time in the past, but whose exact limits are not known and are not important.
Used without a time expression, it can indicate gradual development. Example: It was getting darker.
Used with a point in time, it expresses an action that began before that time and probably continued after it. Example: At 7 o'clock he was having a shower. (Implies that he was in the middle of the action.)
When using "when" followed by a Simple Past, but with the main sentence in a Past Continuous, we are describing an action that started before the action in the Simple Past and probably continued after it. Example: When I arrived, he was talking on the phone.
Other Uses of the Past Continuous
We use the continuous tense in descriptions, combining description (past continuous) with narrative (simple past). Example: "A wood fire was burning in the fireplace and a cat was sleeping in front of it. A girl was playing a piano, singing softly to herself. Suddenly there was a knock on the door. The girl stopped playing."
The Past Continuous is used in indirect speech when the direct speech requires Present Continuous. Example: He said, "I am living in London" (Direct speech) → He said he was living in London (Indirect speech).
The Past Continuous can express a sort of "future in the past." Example: He was busy preparing all his stuff, because he was leaving that night. (The decision to leave had already been made before.)
The Past Continuous is used with "always" (even to describe an irritating habit of the past). Examples: He was always staring at me.
The Past Continuous can be used as an alternative to the Simple Past to indicate a more casual action. Example: I was talking to Sam the other day. (The Past Continuous here gives the impression that the action was not unusual or remarkable. It also tends to remove responsibility from the subject. It's not clear who started the conversation, and it doesn't matter.)
In questions about how a period was spent, the Past Continuous often appears more polite than the Simple Past. Example: What were you doing before you came here?
The Past Continuous could also indicate a feeling that someone is doing something wrong. Example: What were you doing in my room?
Verbs That Cannot Be Used in the Continuous Form
The text notes that some verbs, such as "to like," are never used in the continuous form, while others use progressive forms with a particular meaning. Example: I'm seeing the doctor at ten o'clock (future meaning - Vedrò il dottore alle dieci).
The Conditional
The Present Conditional
The present conditional tense is formed with WOULD/SHOULD + INFINITIVE (without TO). ("Should" is only for the first person)
The present conditional is used: 1. In conditional sentences ("if clauses") 2. To express a wish 3. To ask or to offer in a polite way 4. To express the idea of "future in the past," as a past equivalent of the future simple tense, when the verb of the main sentence is in the simple past tense
The Perfect Conditional
The perfect conditional tense is formed with WOULD/SHOULD + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE.
The perfect conditional is used: 1. In conditional sentences ("if clauses") 2. To express actions, wishes, unrealized possibilities 3. To express the idea of "future in the past," as a past equivalent of the future perfect tense, when the main verb is in the simple past tense
Conditional Sentences
Conditional sentences have two parts: the IF CLAUSE (condition) and the MAIN CLAUSE (result).
The text explains the different types of conditional sentences, including the Zero Conditional, Second Conditional (improbable), and the use of the past subjunctive in the if clause.
It also provides examples and variations of these conditional sentence structures.
Wish and If Only
Wish and "If only" are both used to talk about regrets – things that we would like to change either about the past or the present.
If only I had studied harder when I was at school. I wish you didn't live so far away.
We use wish + would to talk about something in the present that we would like to change – usually something that we find annoying.
I wish he would listen to me. If only he would listen to me.
Would Rather
If you say that you would rather do something or you'd rather do it, you mean that you would prefer to do it. If you say that you would rather not do something, you mean that you do not want to do it. Remember that would rather is always followed by an infinitive without to, or by a simple past.
Kids would rather play than study.
The Present Perfect Tense
The present perfect is formed with HAVE/HAS + past participle. It is used for recent actions when the time is not mentioned (if the time is given, we must use a simple past). Recent actions are often expressed with the Present Perfect because they have results in the present.
The present perfect can also be used for actions which occurred back in the past, but only if the action could be repeated in the present. It is used for actions occurring in an incomplete period/a period which is not finished yet (today/this morning/afternoon/week/year).
The present perfect can be used with frequency adverbs like Ever, Never, Always, Occasionally, Often, Several Times, etc. The first/second/… time; The only.
For and Since
For is used with a period of time (for six days/ for a long time/ etc…). When it's used with a simple past, it indicates a determined period of time. Used with the present perfect, it denotes a period of time extending to the present.
Since is used with a point in time and means "from that point to the time of speaking".
The Present Perfect Continuous Tense
The present perfect continuous tense is formed by the present perfect of To Be+ present participle. It is used for an action which began in the past and is still continuing or has only just finished.
Differences between Present Perfect Simple and Present
Perfect Continuous
The main difference is that we use the present perfect when the action is already finished, while we use the present perfect continuous when the action may be unfinished. You should prefer the present perfect continuous if you want to express a temporary or short action, while for longer or permanent actions you should prefer a present perfect.
The Past Perfect Tense
The past perfect is formed by HAD + past participle. It is used to clarify that an event happened before another one.
a. With "When": When two simple past tenses are used, we want to express the idea that the second action followed immediately the first. But if we use the past perfect, it gives the idea that the first action was completed before the second one started.
b. With "Till/Until" and "Before": The past perfect is used to emphasize the completion of an action before another started.
c. With verbs of knowing, understanding, etc.: They aren't normally used in the past perfect tense in time clauses, except when accompanied by an expression of time.
d. With the expressions: "it was the first/second/etc. time".
The Past Perfect Continuous Tense
The past perfect continuous tense is formed by HAD BEEN + present participle (-ING). It is used when the action began before the time of speaking in the past, and continued up to that time, or finished just before it. A past perfect continuous can be used instead of a past perfect to express an action repeated in the past.
Expressing Habits in the Past: "Used To"
SUBJECT + USED TO + INFINITIVE is only used in the past, it has no present form. It's used to express conditions and habits in the past which are now finished.
"people, someone, they, we". D. When in the active sentence the subject is "one".
Prepositions with Passive Verbs
When a construction like: Verb+preposition+object is put into the passive, the preposition remains after the verb. With a construction like: Verb+preposition/adverb (phrasal verbs), the preposition or the adverb normally immediately follows the verb.
Auxiliary and Modal Verbs in the Passive
Auxiliary + bare infinitive and Modal + bare infinitive are put into the passive voice by using a passive infinitive.
Passive of Sentences with Two Objects
If in the active sentence we have two objects (direct and indirect), we can have a passive construction that doesn't exist in Italian: the person, who is the indirect object of the active sentence, becomes the subject of the passive sentence (personal construction).
Putting Infinitive Combinations into the Passive
When in the active sentence there is a verb of liking/loving/wanting/ wishing etc. With verbs of command/request/advice/invitation + indirect object +infinitive. With advise/beg/order/recommend/urge+indirect object+infinitive+object (two ways). With: agree/be anxious/arrange/be determined/determine/decide/ demand + infinitive + object.
In a passive sentence, after acknowledge, assume, believe, claim, consider, estimate, feel, find, know, presume, report, say, think, understand etc.
Infinitive Constructions
Passive Voice with the Infinitive
The infinitive construction "to be" can be used in the passive voice to transform an active sentence into a passive one. Example: "People believe he is a double crosser" → "He is believed to be a double crosser".
Gerund Combinations
With the verbs "advise/insist/propose/recommend/suggest", the passive voice can be formed using "that... should" + gerund + object. Example:
"He proposed cooking a cake" → "He proposed that a cake should be cooked".
With "it/they + need + gerund", the passive voice can be formed using a passive infinitive. Example: "They need being assisted" → "They need to be assisted".
Suppose
In the passive form, "suppose" can be followed by the present infinitive of any verb. Example: "You are supposed to know to work" → "it's your duty".
When "suppose" is followed by a perfect infinitive, it loses the meaning of duty, and usually means "it's not your duty to finish, just you should have finished". Example: "You are supposed to have finished".
Continuous Infinitive
After the passive of "believe/know/report/say/suppose/think/ understand", a continuous infinitive can be used. Example: "She is supposed to be working" = "si suppone che stia lavorando".
The perfect continuous infinitive is also possible. Example: "She is supposed to have been working" = "Si suppone che stesse lavorando".
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs are "defective" verbs, meaning they lack past, infinitive, continuous, or participle tenses. They must be replaced by other verbs in the missing tenses and can be considered as auxiliaries.
The modal verbs are: Can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, ought to, will and would.
They are followed by the infinitive without 'to', except for 'ought to'. Example: "I can drive" // "You ought to come".
The negative is formed by adding "NOT" to the modal. Example: "You should not (shouldn't) be so nervous".
They form the interrogative by inverting the subject and the verb.
Translating "Potere" (Can/Could)
A. To express ability or capability, use "can" or "be able to" in the present, "could" or "was/were able to" in the past.
B. To express possibility/impossibility, use "can/can't" or "could/couldn't".
C. To ask/give permission or make a request, use "can/could" or the more formal "may".
"Should" can be used for assumptions about present or past actions, with a present infinitive (for non-deliberate actions only) in the affirmative and negative, but not in interrogatives. It can also be followed by a continuous or perfect infinitive.
Dare
The main Italian translations for "dare" are: sfidare, affrontare, osare, ardire, arrischiare.
As an ordinary verb: - It takes the full infinitive with "to" (even if it can be omitted). - It takes an "-s" at the third person singular. - It takes "-ed" in the past.
As a modal: - It takes the bare infinitive (without "to"). - It is used only in negative and interrogative sentences. - In the negative it becomes "dare not" (daren't) in the present and "dared not" in the past. - In the interrogative it uses the inversion subject-verb.
The ordinary verb construction is more commonly used, especially in negative sentences.
"Daresay" can have two meanings: A. "I accept what you say, but it doesn't make any difference" (only for the first person singular of the simple present). B. Express indignation.
"Dare + object + full infinitive" expresses a challenge.
Conditional Sentences
These sentences express possibilities, wishes, regrets, theories, desires, and ambitions.
If Only
"I wish" and "If only" have almost the same meaning (= vorrei, come vorrei/ se solo, se soltanto), but "If only" reveals a stronger emotion.
A. "I wish/If only + simple past": the wish is referred to the present and is almost impossible to achieve. Example: "I wish I was/were better-looking // If only I was/were better-looking!"
B. "I wish/If only + past perfect": to express a regret, a wish referred to the past, unattainable. Similar to the third conditional. Example: "I wish/if only I had gone to university".
C. "I wish/If only + would": to express a wish referred to the present or the future. - The wish that someone could do something, or that someone could stop doing an annoying action. - The wish that a thing come true.
D. "Hope + will": to express a wish which will probably come true. Example: "I hope we'll go to the mountains".
Unless and If Not
"Unless" and "if not" are used to express future actions, but they are used with a present tense (simple present or present continuous), never with a future tense.
"Unless" is followed by an affirmative verb, "if not" makes the sentence negative.
If the sentence means that the event "A" will happen because the event "B" doesn't happen, you can use "if...not", but not "unless", because this is an if- clause.
In Case
"In case" means "in/nel caso (che)" and is used to indicate that an action is performed on the chance that another action occurs.
A. "In case + simple present": it refers to an event that could happen in the future. Example: "Take an umbrella in case it rains".
B. "In case + simple past": is used to explain why an action has been accomplished. Example: "He took his sleeping bag in case they were forced to sleep in the wood".
C. "In case + present perfect": it's similar in use to construction number one. Example: "I'll tell you once again in case you haven't heard".
Provided/Providing That, As/So Long As
These structures mean: "a patto che, a condizione che, purché". They are followed by a present tense to express a future idea and have the same meaning as "if".
It's Time, I'd Rather, Otherwise, Or Else
A. "It's time + simple past": When "It's time" (= è ora) is followed by a simple past, it indicates a present meaning, referring to the fact that it's late. Example: "It's time you went to bed".
B. "I would ('d) rather + simple past": Is used to indicate a preference, usually as an alternative to what has been suggested. Example: "Don't come and see me today, I'd rather you came when I'm fine".
C. "Otherwise" and "Or else": They both mean "altrimenti, oppure, se non". They are used to say that an action must happen, otherwise it will surely have a consequence. Example: "Let's go, or else we'll miss the train".
