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A TEXTBOOK OF

ENERGY AUDITING

DEMAND SIDE MANAGEMENT

By

K.MEENENDRANATH REDDY

Assistant Professor

EEE Department

CONTENTS

UNIT - I

ENERGY AUDITING

Energy situation – world and India, energy consumption, conservation, Codes, standards and Legislation. Energy audit - definitions, concept, types of audit, energy index, cost index, pie charts, Sankey diagrams, load profiles, Energy conservation schemes. Measurements in energy audits, presentation of energy audit results.

UNIT – II

ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS & POWER FACTOR

IMPROVEMENT

Energy efficient motors, factors affecting efficiency, loss distribution, constructional details, characteristics - variable speed, variable duty cycle systems, RMS hp - voltage variation - voltage unbalance - over motoring - motor energy audit. Power factor – methods of improvement, Power factor with non linear loads.

UNIT – III

LIGHTING AND ENERGY INSTRUMENTS FOR AUDIT

Good lighting system design and practice, lighting control, lighting energy audit - Energy Instruments- watt meter, data loggers, thermocouples, pyrometers, lux meters, tongue testers, application of PLC’s

UNIT – IV

INTRODUCTION TO DEMAND SIDE MANAGEMENT

Introduction to DSM, concept of DSM, benefits of DSM, different techniques of DSM – time of day pricing, multi-utility power exchange model, time of day models for planning. Load management, load priority technique, peak clipping, peak shifting, valley filling, strategic conservation, energy efficient equipment. Management and Organization of Energy Conservation awareness Programs.

Abbreviations

GHG greenhouse gas GWEC Global Wind Energy Council FOLU forestry and other land use Btu British thermal units BT Billion Tonne BCM Billion Cubic Metres EMEs Emerging Market Economies (includes countries of South & Central America, Africa, Middle-east, Non-OECD Asia & Non-OECD Europe) GW Giga Watt GWh Giga Watt Hour TWh Terawatt-hours IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency IEA International Energy Agency IOC Indian Oil Corporation IRES International Recommendations on Energy Statistics KToE Kilo Tonne of oil Equivalent KW Kilowatt KWH Kilo Watt Hour Lubes Lubricant MJ Mega-joules MMSCM Million Metric Standard Cubic Metres MT Million Tonne MW Megawatt N.C.W Non-communist World O.E.C.D Organization for Economic Cooperation & Development PJ Peta-joules PEC Per Capita Energy Consumption SEEA System of Environmental Economic Accounting SNA System of National Accounts TEC Total Energy Consumption TFC Total Final Consumption

TPES Total Primary Energy Supply TMT Thousand Metric Tonne TMTPA Thousand Metric Tons Per Annum GDP Gross domestic product

Fig: major primary and secondary energy sources

Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy:- Commercial Energy:- The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as commercial energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal and refined petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and commercial development in the modern world. In the industrialized countries, commercialized fuels are predominant source not only for economic production, but also for many household tasks of general population. Examples:- Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.

Non-Commercial Energy:- The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price used especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.

Example:- Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating, electricity generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport, threshing, lifting water for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water and electricity generation.

Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy:- Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible. Examples of renewable resources include wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power and hydroelectric power (See Figure). The most important feature of renewable energy is that it can be harnessed without the release of harmful pollutants. Non-renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, which are likely to deplete with time.

Renewable Non-Renewable Fig: Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Global Primary Energy Consumption:- World energy supply and consumption is global production and preparation of fuel, generation of electricity, energy transport and energy consumption. It is a basic part of economic activity. It does not include energy from food. Many countries publish statistics on the energy supply and consumption of either their own country, of other countries of interest, or of all countries combined in one chart. One of the largest organizations in this field, the International Energy Agency (IEA), publishes yearly comprehensive energy data.[2]^ This collection of energy balances is very large. This article provides a brief description of energy

In the energy domain, there are many different units thrown around – joules, exajoules, million tonnes of oil equivalents, barrel equivalents, British thermal units, terawatt-hours, to name a few. This is the worldwide production of energy, extracted or captured directly from natural sources. In energy statistics primary energy (PE) refers to the first stage where energy enters the supply chain before any further conversion or transformation process. Energy production is usually classified as:  fossil, using coal, crude oil, and natural gas;  nuclear, using uranium;  renewable, using biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar, tidal, wave, wind, and among others. Primary energy assessment follows certain rules to ease measurement of different kinds of energy. These rules are controversial. Water and air flow energy that drives hydro and wind turbines, and sunlight that powers solar panels, are not taken as PE, which is set at the electric energy produced. But fossil and nuclear energy are set at the reaction heat which is about 3 times the electric energy. This measurement difference can lead to underestimating the economic contribution of renewable energy. The table lists the worldwide PE and the countries/regions producing most (90%) of that. The amounts are rounded and given in million tonnes of oil equivalent per year (1 Mtoe = 11.63 TWh, 1 TWh = 10^9 kWh). The data are of 2018.

Total final consumption (TFC) is the worldwide consumption of energy by end- users (whereas primary energy consumption (Eurostat) or total energy supply (IEA) is total energy demand and thus also includes what the energy sector uses itself and transformation and distribution losses). This energy consists of fuel (78%) and electricity (22%). The tables list amounts, expressed in million tonnes of oil equivalent per year (1 Mtoe = 11.63 TWh) and how much of these is renewable energy. Non-energy products are not considered here. The data are of 2018. Fuel :  Fossil: natural gas, fuel derived from petroleum (LPG, gasoline, kerosene, gas/diesel, fuel oil), from coal (anthracite, bituminous coal, coke, blast furnace gas).  Renewable: biofuel and fuel derived from waste. The first table lists final consumption in the countries/regions which use most (85%), and per person. In developing countries fuel consumption per person is low and more renewable. Canada, Venezuela and Brazil generate most electricity with hydropower.

1.2 ENERGY CONSUMPTION:-

Energy consumption is the amount of energy or power used. Energy use can be divided many different ways but the most common is through the end product — either electricity; thermal energy, which is heating/cooling (including hot

Primary energy is the inherent energy or energy potential of natural phenomena and raw materials prior to further manipulation from humans. The most important primary energy sources are fossil fuels such as crude oil, natural gas, and coal, as well as renewable sources such as wind and solar energy. As the latter two are intangible, primary energy consumption factors in the amount of electricity (a secondary energy form) generated via these sources. Primary energy consumption worldwide in 2020, by country (in exajoules)

Primary energy is the energy inherent in natural resources such as crude oil, coal, and wind before further transformation. For example, crude oil can be refined into secondary fuels, such as gasoline or diesel, while wind is harnessed for electricity - itself a secondary energy source. A country’s total primary energy supply is a measure of the country’s primary energy sources. Meanwhile, end use energy is the energy directly consumed by the user and

includes primary fuels such as natural gas as well as secondary sources like electricity and gasoline. Primary energy consumption worldwide in 2019 and 2020, by fuel type (in exajoules)

Primary energy consumption worldwide from 2000 to 2020 (in exajoules)

The major commercial energy consuming sectors in the country are classified as shown in the Figure. As seen from the figure, industry remains the biggest consumer of commercial energy and its share in the overall consumption is 43%. The per capita energy

consumption or comfort levels. Promotion of energy efficiency will contribute to energy conservation and is therefore an integral part of energy conservation promotional policies. Energy efficiency is often viewed as a resource option like coal, oil or natural gas. It provides additional economic value by preserving the resource base and reducing pollution. For example, replacing traditional light bulbs with Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs)

means you will use only 1/4th of the energy to light a room. Pollution levels also reduce by the same amount. Energy Efficient Equipment uses less energy for same output and reduces CO 2 emissions is shown in figure,

Incandescent Lamp 60W Compact fluorescent Lamp 15W CO2Emission – 65 g/hr CO2Emission – 16 g/hr The benefits of Energy conservation for various players are given in Figure,

The Energy Conservation Act, 2001 and its Features:- Policy Framework – Energy Conservation Act – 2001 With the background of high energy saving potential and its benefits, bridging the gap between demand and supply, reducing environmental emissions through energy saving, and

to effectively overcome the barrier, the Government of India has enacted the Energy Conservation Act – 2001. The Act provides the much-needed legal framework and institutional arrangement for embarking on an energy efficiency drive. Under the provisions of the Act, Bureau of Energy

Efficiency has been established with effect from 1

st March 2002 by merging erstwhile Energy Management Centre of Ministry of Power. The Bureau would be responsible for implementation of policy programmers and coordination of implementation of energy conservation activities. Important features of the Energy Conservation Act are: Standards and Labeling:- Standards and Labeling (S & L) has been identified as a key activity for energy efficiency improvement. The S & L program, when in place would ensure that only energy efficient equipment and appliance would be made available to the consumers. The main provision of EC act on Standards and Labeling are:  Evolve minimum energy consumption and performance standards for notified equipment and appliances.  Prohibit manufacture, sale and import of such equipment, which does not conform to the standards.  Introduce a mandatory labeling scheme for notified equipment appliances to enable consumers to make informed choices  Disseminate information on the benefits to consumers Designated Consumers:- The main provisions of the EC Act on designated consumers are:  The government would notify energy intensive industries and other establishments as designated consumers;  Schedule to the Act provides list of designated consumers which covered basically energy intensive industries, Railways, Port Trust, Transport Sector, Power Stations, Transmission & Distribution Companies and Commercial buildings or establishments;  The designated consumer to get an energy audit conducted by an accredited energy auditor;  Energy managers with prescribed qualification are required to be appointed or designated by the designated consumers;  Designated consumers would comply with norms and standards of energy consumption as prescribed by the central government.

representing equipment and appliance manufacturers, industry, architects, consumers and five power regions representing the states. The Director General of the Bureau shall be the ex-officio member-secretary of the Council.  The BEE will be initially supported by the Central Government by way of grants through budget, it will, however, in a period of 5-7 years become self-sufficient. It would be authorized to collect appropriate fee in discharge of its functions assigned to it. The BEE will also use the Central Energy Conservation Fund and other funds raised from various sources for innovative financing of energy efficiency projects in order to promote energy efficient investment. Role of Bureau of Energy Efficiency:-  The role of BEE would be to prepare standards and labels of appliances and equipment, develop a list of designated consumers, specify certification and accreditation procedure, prepare building codes, maintain Central EC fund and undertake promotional activities in co-ordination with center and state level agencies. The role would include development of Energy service companies (ESCOs), transforming the market for energy efficiency and create awareness through measures including clearing house. Role of Central and State Governments:- The following role of Central and State Government is envisaged in the Act  Central - to notify rules and regulations under various provisions of the Act, provide initial financial assistance to BEE and EC fund, Coordinate with various State Governments for notification, enforcement, penalties and adjudication.  State - to amend energy conservation building codes to suit the regional and local climatic condition, to designate state level agency to coordinate, regulate and enforce provisions of the Act and constitute a State Energy Conservation Fund for promotion of energy efficiency. Enforcement through Self-Regulation:- E.C. Act would require inspection of only two items. The following procedure of self- regulation is proposed to be adopted for verifying areas that require inspection of only two items that require inspection.  The certification of energy consumption norms and standards of production process by the Accredited Energy Auditors is a way to enforce effective energy efficiency in Designated Consumers.

 For energy performance and standards, manufacturer’s declared values would be checked in Accredited Laboratories by drawing sample from market. Any manufacturer or consumer or consumer association can challenge the values of the other manufacturer and bring to the notice of BEE. BEE can recognize for challenge testing in disputed cases as a measure for self-regulation. Penalties and Adjudication:-  Penalty for each offence under the Act would be in monetary terms i.e. Rs.10,000 for each offence and Rs.1,000 for each day for continued non Compliance.  The initial phase of 5 years would be promotional and creating infrastructure for implementation of Act. No penalties would be effective during this phase.  The power to adjudicate has been vested with state Electricity Regulatory Commission which shall appoint any one of its member to be an adjudicating officer for holding an enquiry in connection with the penalty imposed.

1.4 CODES, STANDARDS & LEGISLATION:-

It presents an historical perspective on key codes, standards, and regulations which have impacted energy policy and are still playing a major role in shaping energy usage. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 is far reaching and its implementation is impacting electric power deregulation, building codes and new energy efficient products. Sometimes policy makers do not see the far reaching impact of their legislation. The Energy Policy Act for example has created an environment for retail competition. Electric utilities will drastically change the way they operate in order to provide power and lowest cost. This in turn will drastically reduce utility sponsored incentive and rebate programs which have influenced energy conservation adoption. THE ENERGY POLICY ACT OF 1992:- This comprehensive legislation is far reaching and impacts energy conservation, power generation, and Alternative fuel vehicles as well as energy production. The federal as well as private sectors are impacted by this comprehensive energy act. Highlights are described below: Energy Efficiency Provisions:- Buildings  Requires states to establish minimum commercial building energy codes and to consider minimum residential codes based on current voluntary codes.