Download Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory: Nature-Nurture Debate & Childhood Stages and more Quizzes Psychology in PDF only on Docsity!
Philosophical orientations of developmental
psychology
Locke: 17th century "Tabula rasa" ("blank slate") Nurture: Development is a product of your environment. Rousseau: 18th century, opposite of Locke Nature: We're born with everything we need to become who we're meant to become.Children should and can develop as their nature dictates, without outside interference TERM 2
Nature-Nurture Controversy
DEFINITION 2 Asks the question: to what extent is our development the product of heredity (nature) and the product of environment (nurture)? How do nature and nurture interact? TERM 3
Sensitive periods
DEFINITION 3 Certain times in development when a person is especially sensitive to influences from our outside environment. TERM 4
Phase theories
DEFINITION 4 Development is gradual. TERM 5
Stage theories
DEFINITION 5 Development occurs in abrupt shifts and has 5 characteristics: Stages are qualitatively different (changes in kindof behavior). Stages occur in an invariable sequence (but people may go through them at different ages). Stages are never repeated. Stages are integrated with one another (e.g. muscle development acquired in crawling is needed to walk). Moving from one stage to the next affects multiple behaviors.
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
A stage theory based on changes in the structure and organization of schemas. It involves 2 processes. Organization:The combination and integration of separate schemas into more complex schema groupings. Adaptation: the modification of schemas in order to handle new experiences. This involves the 2 processes of assimilation and accommodation. The stages are: the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage, and the formal operational stage. TERM 7
Schemas
DEFINITION 7 Organized patterns of thought and action / mental frameworks that guide our interaction with the world. According to Piaget's theory, cognitive development occurs as we acquire new schemas and our existing schemas become more complex. TERM 8
Assimilation
DEFINITION 8 In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, an adaptation process in which new experiences are incorporated into existing schemas. TERM 9
Accommodation
DEFINITION 9 In Piaget's theory, the process by which new experiences cause existing schemas to change radically or be replaced. Involved in adaptation according to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, and especially important in the transition from one stage to the next TERM 10
Sensorimotor stage
DEFINITION 10 Piaget's 1st stage (ages 0-2) Children learn primarily through their senses and their motor (physical) interactions with objects, and learn to coordinate their movement with their perceptions (i.e. let their perceptions guide their movement). Children learn to "operate" on the world and develop "object permanence." By the end of the stage, the child can experiment mentally (make predictions based on the past, alter behavior, etc.), imitate other people's behavior from memory, and form mental schemas. They can't really use these schemas to reason.
Transductive reasoning
In the preoperational stage, children interpolate correlation as causation and misunderstand cause and effect. They're better with simple events they can see directly, but still bad. TERM 17
Animism
DEFINITION 17 In the preoperational stage, children believe that inanimate objects are alive. TERM 18
Immanent justice
DEFINITION 18 In the preoperational stage, children believe that bad behavior will inevitably be punished (by various sources). They believe that rIght is right and wrong is wrong. TERM 19
Concrete operational stage
DEFINITION 19 Piaget's 3rd stage of cognitive development (ages 7-11) Children can't yet think in abstract terms. Their reasoning and self-descriptions are bounded in concrete reality. They have learned the following reasoning abilities: Reversibility Seriation Class inclusion Conservation TERM 20
Reversibility
DEFINITION 20 By the concrete operational stage, children understand that logical operations can be reversed, and can change their way of thinking.
Seriation
By the concrete operational stage, children are able to order objects and series according to memory. TERM 22
Class inclusion
DEFINITION 22 By the concrete operational stage, children are able to reason about both the whole and its parts simultaneously. TERM 23
Conservation
DEFINITION 23 By (or in?) the concrete operational stage, children realize/understand that an object or amount stays the same despite changes in appearance or shape. TERM 24
Formal operational stage
DEFINITION 24 Piaget's 4th stage of cognitive development (ages 11 up) Adolescents/adults can begin to think of the abstract. This is where we stay for the rest of our lives. We see changes in degree but not in kind. Reasoning characterized by the following traits: Abstract thinking Adolescent egocentrism (adolescents) or the spotlight effect (adults) Personal fable TERM 25
Adolescent egocentrism
DEFINITION 25 Adolescents have the idea that everybody's focusing on me. This leads to the personal fable.
Childhood development in knowledge
organization
Organization of knowledge increases through schematic hierarchies. Developing new schematic hierarchies to handle increasing information Faster at organizing schemas TERM 32
automatic vs. controlled processes
DEFINITION 32 Practice with information processes allows many "controlled processes to become automatic. Controlled processes: Require lots of effort and concentration. Automatic processes: Don't require much thought (i.e. eating with a fork, sitting in a chair) TERM 33
metacognition
DEFINITION 33 A self-awareness of and ability to control one's own thinking (an ability to think about thinking, e.g. "Do I want to solve this problem inductively or deductively?") Developed around the age of 5 Facilitates planning, revising, etc. TERM 34
processing speed in adulthood
DEFINITION 34 Peaks in mid-20's, then decreases (but this decrease isn't noticeable until ~50 or 60). The decrease means it takes a longer time to take decisions. However, this may reflect increased cautiousness rather than/in addition to changes in neuron firing. TERM 35
working memory
DEFINITION 35 Temporary storing spot for processing information; what you hold in your conscious awareness. Limited Similar to short-term memory Active - info will stay there only as long as you're consciously using it. At peak, it can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of information
long-term memory
Information is processed from working memory into long- term memory. TERM 37
working memory in adulthood
DEFINITION 37 Decreases with age after peak, so older adults have a harder time doing complex tasks that involve more information or require more attention. TERM 38
encoding into long-term memory: changes in
adulthood
DEFINITION 38 It takes longer for adults to learn new things. Older adults may compensate by using their increased knowledge base and using alternative strategies. Adults are less likely to remember details and more likely to remember the underlying themes of a story. TERM 39
Attachment
DEFINITION 39 Strong positive emotional ties that bind one person to his most intimate companions. Attached people interact often. Selective -> few rather than many Reciprocal Begins to appear at ~6-7 months, usually with Mom, and a little later with Dad Coincides with the development of object permanence TERM 40
Approaches to development of attachment
DEFINITION 40 the Psychoanalytic approach Learning Theory
separation
anxiety
~6-12 months of age Peaks ~12-18 months Declines substantially after ~18 months, maybe because the child has better memory nearing the end of the sensorimotor stage and can understand that mom will still be around. To ease separation anxiety, adults should provide children with a brief and simple explanation of why and for how long the separation will occur. This explanation should occur right before the separation. TERM 47
Ainsworth's research on quality of
attachments
DEFINITION 47 Strange situation test Observed 3 kinds of attachment: secure, anxious/ambivalent, and avoidant. TERM 48
secure attachment
DEFINITION 48 55-60% of North American babies The attachment figure is a secure base for exploration Moderate separation anxiety Happy reunion Mild stranger anxiety "Moms" are consistently responsive to the infant and emotionally expressive TERM 49
anxious/ambivalent attachment
DEFINITION 49 20-25% of North American babies Anxious about exploration Strong stranger anxiety DIstant reunion Moderate stranger anxiety Drawn to attachment figure but there's a lack of trust "Moms" are inconsistent in behavior towards the child - their response to the infant is dependent on their own mood. TERM 50
Baumrind's research on parenting styles
DEFINITION 50 There are 3 parenting styles that have different outcomes.
Authoritarian parenting style
Values obedience for obedience's sake and asserts a lot of power as a means of controlling the child's behavior. Outcomes: the child is unfriendly, distrustful, more likely to cheat, and less likely to feel guilty or accept blame for wrongdoing. TERM 52
Strange Situation
Test
DEFINITION 52 A standardized procedure for examining infant attachment by placing infants in strange situations and seeing how they react. TERM 53
Authoritative parenting style
DEFINITION 53 Less concerned w/power for its own sake, but still wants the child to behave properly Uses "inductive" discipline: using verbal reasoning to get the child to understand his behavior and how it affects other people. Gives child increasing responsibility as he ages; sets limits but encourages independence and strong decision-making Associated with the most positive outcomes: the child is friendly, cooperative, self-reliant, more socially responsible, less likely to disrupt other children's activities TERM 54
avoidant attachment
DEFINITION 54 15-20% of North American babies Little exploration/apathetic to exploration Little separation anxiety Uninterested in reunion Uninterested in strangers "Moms" are consistently unresponsive and rejecting. They're willing to say negative things about the child in front of him and willing to be hostile to him. TERM 55
Permissive parenting style
DEFINITION 55 Most tolerant of child's bad behavior Least likely to discipline Gives child a lot of freedom. Outcomes: the child is immature, more dependent on others, more unhappy, and most likely to throw a temper tantrum.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
12-18 years Especially important b/c of: physical changes, formal operational stage (abstract thinking), important life decisions, etc. Marcia's research
- -> Ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated (integration of various roles) individual, ability to sustain loyalties and commitments
- -> Confusion (roles, identity, etc.) TERM 62
Marcia's research
DEFINITION 62 Identity involves 2 basic dimensions: occupational commitments (career and long-terma activities) and ideological commitments (e.g. political, religious, and ethical values) 4 sets of people according to strength of commitments and degree of struggle: achieved (high strength and high struggle), moratorium (low strength and high struggle), foreclosure (high strength and low struggle), and diffusion (low strength and low struggle) TERM 63
Follow-up research on identity crises
DEFINITION 63 For middle-class white males, the prime time for identity crisis is 18-21 (perhaps because more people go to college). People who do go through an identity crisis (either achieved or moratorium) tend to have greater self-esteem, sense of independence, and capacity for intimacy. People in foreclosure study more diligently, are more likely to stay on regular hours, cope better, get less riled, are more likely to describe home as loving and affectionate, and are often happy. TERM 64
Intimacy vs. Isolation
DEFINITION 64 Ages 19-35/40 (early adulthood)
- -> Ability to love another person and commit to him/her, but also to commit oneself generally
- -> Isolation from meaningful, close interpersonal relationships TERM 65
Initiative vs. Guilt
DEFINITION 65 3-5 years
- -> Sense of purpose, ability to plan and initiate your own plans, ability to enjoy your own accomplishments
- -> (Comes from over-controlling parents) Guilt over trying to carry things out on one's own, overly judgmental of self
Research on marriage and family
Staying single is much more of an option today (it's not as much of an economic necessity, esp. for women, and its more socially acceptable). But, marriage is still the norm. TERM 67
Generativity vs. Stagnation
DEFINITION 67 Ages 40-65 (middle adulthod)
- -> Widening of concern to more people in our community and to future generations
- -> Self-centeredness, stagnation TERM 68
Children and marital satisfaction
DEFINITION 68 Marital satisfaction decreases as the couple has more children, but then increases again as each child leaves the home. TERM 69
Mid-life crises?
DEFINITION 69 Levinson: Yes (family, work values, sexuality, life goals, etc.) 80% -> The period from age 40-45 was stressful and depressing. Sample was 40 white males. Newgarten: Few women had problems with menopause and kids leavin ghome. Expected/predictable is less stressful than the opposite. Recent research: 2-5% TERM 70
Integrity vs.
Despair
DEFINITION 70 Age 65-death
- -> Self-worth in retrospect, assurance of dignity in one's own life, acceptance of death
- -> Despair over not being able to find meaning in one's life, despair over having to die.
Effects of child care on social behavior
Virtually no significant differences before age 4.5 and after 3rd grade. TERM 77
Effects of child care on cognitive performance
DEFINITION 77 No significant differences, but exposure to higher-quality care was associated with bettercognitive performance. TERM 78
Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning
DEFINITION 78 There are 3 main levels of moral reasoning, with 2 substages in each level. Progress depends on cognitive maturation and the opportunity to confront moral issues, especially when such issues can be discussed with someone at a higher stage. Preconventional moral reasoning Conventional moral reasoning Postconventional moral reasoning TERM 79
Preconventional moral reasoning
DEFINITION 79 The lowest level of moral reasoning,based on actual or anticipated punishments or rewards, rather than internalized values. Substage 1 - Punishment-obedience orientation: Obeying rules and avoiding punishment. Substage 2 - Instrumental-hedonistic orientation: self- interest and gaining rewards TERM 80
Conventional moral reasoning
DEFINITION 80 The middle level of moral reasoning, based on conformity to social expectations (stage 3), laws and duties (stage 4). The person adopts other people's values. Substage 3 - Good-child orientation: Gaining approval and maintaining good relationships with others. Substage 4 - Law-and-order orientation: Doing one's duty, showing respect for authority, and maintaining social order.
Postconventional moral reasoning
The highest level of moral reasoning, based on general moral principles that have been thought out and internalized as part of one's belief and value system. Substage 5 - Social-contract orientation: General principles agreed on by society that foster community welfare and individual rights; recognition that society can decide to modify laws that lose their social utility. Substage 6 - Universal ethical principle: Abstract ethical principles based on justice and equality; following one's conscience. TERM 82
Assessment of Kohlberg's theory of moral
reasoning
DEFINITION 82 From childhood through adolescence, moral reasoning does change from preconventional to conventional levels. In adolescence and even adulthood, postconventional views are relatively uncommon. A person's moral judgments don't always reflect the same stage within levels. TERM 83
Criticisms of Kohlberg's theory of moral
reasoning
DEFINITION 83 Western cultural bias: Many cultures consider principles other than fairness and justice to be their highest moral values. Male bias (from Carol Gilligan): the theory places an emphasis on justice, while women place greater value on caring and responsibility for others' welfare.
