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1421 Chapter 7,. Small Group Decision-Making Procedures
Seibold, D. R., & Krikorian, D. H. (1997). Planning and facilitating group meetings. In L. R. Frey & J. K. Barge (Eds.), Managing group life: Communicating in decision-making groups (pp. 270-305). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Sunwolf. (2002). Getting to "groupaha!": Provoking creative processes in Lask groups. In L. R. Frey (Ed.), New directions in J:,>roup communication (pp. 203-217). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Sunwolf, & Seibold, D. R. (1999). The impact offormal procedures on group processes, members, and task outcomes. In L R. Frey (Ed.), D. S. Gouran, & M.S. Poole (Assoc. Eds.), The handbook of group communication theory and research (pp. 395-431). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Ulschak, F. L, Nathanson, L., & Gillan, P. G. (1981). Small group problem solving: An aid to organiza- tional effectiveness. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Weaver, W. T., & Prince, G. M. (1990). Synectics: Its potential for education. Phi Delta Kappan, 71, 378-388. Zorn, T. A., & Rosenfeld, l. B. (1989). Between a rock and a hard place: Ethical dilemma in problem- solving group facilitation. Management Communication Quarterly, 3, 93-106. Development of Small Group Roles After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
- explain the functional approach to roles,
- identify the three general propositions of roles,
- differentiate among formal, informal, and deviant roles,
- identify and describe the five informal roles, and
:;_ identify and describe several deviant role behaviors.
I After working as an administrator for the Taylor County
Department of Human Services in a small town in the Midwest for 40 years, Chris Simpson decides to retire. Tom Harrison, agency director, forms a committee to plan a retirement party for Chris, and drawing from the diverse workforce, he selects Ted (Caucasian male, new hire) and other employees from each 5-year category of service. The members chosen include Yang (Asian male, 5 years), Alicia (African-American female, 10 years), Leo (Caucasian male, 15 years), and Lucille (Caucasian female, 20 years), whom Tom appoints as 1143
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Photo K l A group activity, such as the members of a social group playing golf, can reveal how group members embrace roles and role behaviors. Source: ©iStockphoto.com/robh.
chair because she worked with him for many years. The agency's budgeted monies and employee donations allow the committee a considerable amount of money to spend. The group meets for the first time two months before Chris's retirement date.
Lucil!t': I must admit I've never chaired a committee before, but I know Chris well, so that should be helpful. Does anyone have any ideas? Well, I have lots of experience chairing committees, although I don't know Chris as well as the rest of you. But I do know that someone should be taking the minutes of the meetings so we can record our work. \t\Tho wants to do that? How about you, Leo? l.A_'( ' Isn't that a woman's role? Being a secretary?
i\lk:i'cl: Excuse me, Leo, but is that intended to be a sexist remark?
Luci!k: Hold on, you two. I don't want to see you putting on boxing gloves!
A lien: (humorously) I'm a terrible boxer! Why don't we rotate taking the min-
utes? I'll take them today, and then Leo will have a good idea of what is
Chapter 8 m Development. , of Small Group Roles II -
expected. He can take them the next meeting. In fact, I bet he'll love taking the minutes once he tries it. That'~ a great idea, Alicia. Now, let's brainstorm ideas for the party. Before we do that, Yang, let's talk about Chris. I haven't had much of an opportunity to interact with our honoree. I would like to know more about Chris as a person and an employe~. ·
Ln 1: Chris is a stellar employee and loves golf. VVhat more do we need to
know? I have access to a country club; we could play golf and follow it with dinner and dancing. T<.·d: That sounds good, Leo, but that idea may not work for all employees who want to attend. I don't play golf. How many of our employees do? And does Chris's family play golfl
led:
Those are good points, Ted. Perhaps we should find out more about Chris so we have a better idea of the type of party to plan. Then why don't we just ask Chris to plan the party? Why do we need a committee? This is a waste of time. My desk is overflowing with work. Come on, Ted. I see this committee as having a fun assignment. Once we know more about Chris, we can put our great minds together and plan the best retirement party this agency has ever seen. Chris deserves it. Let's each talk to the people we work with about Chris and find out all we can and meet again tomorrow.
A
n important function in small groups is establishing group members' roles. Think of roles as different hats members wear during the life span of group life. How many different hats do you wear in a current group? How many roles are you willing to play in a group? The answers depend on the fact that role performance varies with each unique group experience. For example, in the case study Lucille behaves as the appointed leader, and Alicia attempts to relieve group tensions, exercising behaviors crucial to a group's communication as members work on the task and attend to member relations. Thus, making sure group members understand which roles and role behaviors are needed and how members competently can perform these roles factor in significantly to group success.
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argue or engage in decision-making activities. Through group members' commu- nicative influences and encouragement, you _may find yourself more willing to communicate and argue issues. You also may have expectations for your behavior in groups, which may contradict vvith your actual contributions to the group. Sometimes, you consider your ideas or skills the best when, in fact, the group may choose other members' ideas or other members' skills surpass yours. As such, you may have to learn to adjust your view of self. The third general proposition is that we play multiple roles simultaneously. In Chapter 2, we described five phases of the socialization process that members move through while working on the task and building relationships. We can assume safely, then, that different phases of the socialization process and group communication in general need different roles. Thus, groups may need multiple roles as they develop. For example, in the encounter phase of socialization when members first come together, they get to know one another and may not need a member to manage conflict. Conversely, in the assimilation phase when members establish a group culture, they may need a member to manage conflicts that arise over differences of opinions. Although scholars know that group success depends on certain roles being played in each small group setting, Kenneth Benne and Paul Sheats (1948) sug- gested group members should not limit themselves by assuming only one or two roles. This type of limiting behavior by members, referred to as role rigidity, occurs when members do not play a variety of roles. Groups are less likely to suc- ceed when their group structure sanctions role rigidity. VVhen members assume multiple role positions, they permit the effective utilization of each member's strengths and talents. Role conl1ict occurs when two or more members vie for the same role. Suppose the group contains no appointed leader. You want to be the leader because you are a high Mach and motivated to communicate for control whereas another member wants to be the leader because of his prior leadership experience. Communication among group members can get quite heated as each member tries to "win" by persuading the other members to choose him. This type of role competition likely causes tension among the group members because they ulti- mately must make a choice.
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In your work group, have you experienced either role conflict or role strain? What impact did this have on your group performance?
Role strain occurs when the group requires members to assume a new role and they feel reluctant, at least initially, to do so. For example, you may be asked to assume the leadership role if the present leader resigns. In these instances, members must anticipate playing new roles and learn how to behave in new ways (Moreland & Levine, 1984). Additionally, at times, members will exit a
Chapter 8" Development of Small Group Roles 1149 , i
group and new members will enter. This change in group composition can create role strain because the members not only must socialize the new members; they must adapt and adjust to the new members as yv-ell.
Role Development+-
So how does· a group member learn to play a particular role? According to researchers, a meniber can learn to play a role in two primary ways. The first way is to engage in information seeking. Communication in groups comprises what members say, how they say it, and to whom they say it. By asking questions and observing their own group as well as other small groups, group members seek information as one way to learn about their roles (Lester, 1987). Learning how to perform group role behaviors often comes from direct informa- tion obtained from other group members, people outside the group, friends, and family. Additionally, we gain insight and learn about role development by taking classes in small group communica- tion and reading books that provide infor- mative tips about the roles members play in groups. The second way is to solicit feedback. In one sense, feedback comprises the other half of information seeking. Feedback, the response a listener gives to a speaker about the speaker's behavior (Ogilvie & Haslett, 1985), provides information about indi- vidual role behaviors, provides support or encouragement from other members, and evaluates member and group performance (Ashford, 1986). Effective feedback also serves as a means of motivJt~on or incen- tive to perform well (Quaglieri, 1980) and describes, rather than evaluates, a group member's behavior (Harris, 1988). Feedback can be positive, negative, Photo 8.2 Feedback never should be or ambiguous. Positive feedback helps delivered to group members in an group membe~s distinguish betvveen typi- inappropriate manner. cal and optimal behavior concerning task Source: ©iStockphoto.com/lisegagne.
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performance and relationship building, reinforcing the idea. that the behavior should continue. Over tiine, the behavior becomes patterned and continues to improve as the group process develops. In a review of literature on feedback, group scholar Beatrice Schultz (1999) reported positive feedback about task accomplishments improves group task performance. Group communication scholars Sean Limon and Franklin Boster (2003) found that when task groups receive positive feedback, the group members perceive their group as having greater task competencies and prestige than task groups whose group members receive negative feedback. Equally, positive feedback strengthens the relational aspects leading to group cohesion and member satisfaction, in part because posi- tive feedback is considered more accurate, easier to provide, more credible, and more desirable than negative feedback (Martin & jacobs, 1980). As demonstrated in the case study, Lucille supports the idea that group members should find out all
Ethically Speaking: Should a group permit a. membef ·to·cOntinL!e engaging in behaviors the other. members don'texpect, appreciate, think are appropriate, or even like?. What steps should the members take to combat these behaviors? ''
about Chris and then attempts to build cohesion in the group by suggesting they "plan the best retirement party this agency has ever seen." Negative feedback helps group members identify weaknesses and make improvements. Sometimes members give negative feedback concerning role behaviors because they want the mem- ber to stop the behavior. Suppose the group leader behaves in a bossy manner, and the members, considering that style group inappropriate, tell the leader they don't like it. One of two things will happen: The behavior will continue, or the behavior will stop. According to Abran Salazar (1996), negative role behavior continues if the behavior provides "utility value to the group and [is] perceived as such" (p. 493). Perhaps the bossy leader has powerful upward influence with top management that helps the group attain valuable resources it needs to succeed. Conversely, if the negative behavior provides no utility value, the group members will continue to give negative feedback with the hope the behavior will change or stop eventu- ally. On the downside, when task groups receive negative feedback, group members perceive each other as engaging in higher amounts of social loafing (Limon & Boster, 2003). Ambiguous neither positive nor negative, offers little information to the group member. In fact, ambiguous feedback can dishearten any member attempting to learn a new role, perform a difficult role, or assume multiple roles because of its lack of direction. Because one goal of feedback is role clarity (Nadler, 1979), feedback that accomplishes no role clarity leaves a member in a bind with unanswered questions, such as "How should I act?" and "V\There do I go
Chapter 8 ~ _Develor=1ment of Small Group Roles 151
for information?" For example, if someone quits your work group and no one knows exactly what that person did or how he completed his tasks, the new mem- ber assuming his role may receive a variety of messages from other members on how he should perform. V\Then confronted with this type of uncertainty, members must seek additional information, suffer throUgh trial and error efforts, and/or learn the "ropes" as best they can. Obstacles to role performance, such as lack of information, take time to overcome. In sum, teachers and trainers of small groups cannot stress enough the value and importance o~ constructive positive or negative feedback that contributes to group performance. N, Ernest Bormann ( 1990) stated, feedback as honest feelings expressed from one member to another or to the group as a whole contributes to relationship building and satisfaction among group members. Group success, then, depends on the competent communicative skills of giving and receiving feedback.
In any group, roles can be classified into three types: formal roles, informal roles, and deviant roles.
Vorrna! roles describe specific role positions assigned to one group member through appointment or election as part of the group's structure. Fast-food restau- rants, for example, contain layers of such appointed formal roles as manager, supervisor, and crew leader. Legitimate formal roles carry certain powers to act in performing the requirements established for each role position. Furthermore, group members should acknowledge and respect such formal role positions as manager. Note in the case study that although Lucille is the formal leader, Yang is willing to help her fulfill that role by engaging in leadership behaviors. In general, group scho,lars agree all types of formal groups, including those charged with making decisicms or solving problems, are better served with the establishment or assignment of three formal roles in the group (Cragan & Wright, 1999; Keyton, 1999; Pavitt & Curtis, 1994). These formal roles-leader, recorder, and critical advisor~center on keeping the group on the task and moving toward goal achievement. In the first formal role, the leader must move the group toward its goals and convince external audiences the group is achieving or has achieved its goals. Experts often view the leader role as complex due to its association with the ideas
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social-emotional leader immensely, if not more than any ot~1er member in the group. The inforrnation nrnvidtT exercises the ability to synthesize information. In this role, the member contributes information in the form of facts, statistics, examples, and quotations. Additionally, in the technological world of today, the information provider may demonstrate competency in seeking relevant informa- tion on the Internet. Although the information provider is generally adept at find- ing information for, and providing information to, the group, the information provider may resist playing this role if he feels the group does not appreciate his efforts. The central negative group member challenges the group's decisions. According to john Cragan and David Wright (1999), the member who plays this role feels unhappy with the group processes or group work and often tries to chal- lenge the leader. The central negative-for example, the case study's Ted-may have similar characteristics as the task leader and therefore voice the loudest and strongest criticisms against the group's path. In one respect, the central negative often forces the group to think in different ways; in another respect, this role can result in blocking the group's progress toward goals as members strive to defend their stance on an issue. The !ension using light humor strategically, eases tensions in the group that may arise over role conflicts, personality clashes, or problems with the
In your work group, which informal role do you play? How does this role help your group? How does this role hinder your group?
decision-making process associated with the task. Though thought of as friendly and funny, the member playing the tension releaser role need not be a comedian. Stories and jokes may be appropriate for the context surrounding the tension, but sometimes they may not. In small groups, humor serves to bring smiles or laughter to the members as a way of getting them to reexamine the communicative events surrounding the cause of the tension.ln the case study, Alicia plays this role when she jokes about her lack- ing boxing skills.
Another category of informal roles falls under the negative and disruptive indi- vidual roles identified by Benne and Sheats (1948). These negative roles, referred to as deviant destroy the group's productivity and success because the com- municative focus centers on an individual member rather than on the best thing for the group. Group communication, thus, does not help the group make
Chapter 8 "' Development , of Small Group Roles (^1155) I
"I~1ble 8.1 Deviant Roles
Role ·..· •.
.. ·. (^) I_-_ I)escriptiOn. .··.::· (^) ..-' ~
. .. ... .· ·····.. · . ·...... (^) ~- Airhead (^) Purposely acts stupid so other members Will complete task Aggressor (^) Attacks other members or the task
Blocker Interferes with the group process by disagreeing frequently Clown Makes a fool of herself by acting dumb or saying stupid things Dominator Monopolizes group time and tries to show superiority Egghead Acts as if he is smarter than other members Recognition seeker Seeks attention by boasting Self-confessor Expresses personal feelings unrelated to group's goal Special pleader Introduces irrelevant information and supports it Whiner Complains about having to participate in group task
Source: Based on Benne, K., & Sheats, P. (1948). Functional roles of group members. Journal of Social Issues, 4, 41--49.
progress on its task or meet the relational needs of its members. Examine the list of deviant role behaviors identified by Benne and Sheats (1948) in Table 8.1. How many of these roles have you played at some point in your work groups? When a member consistently engages in a deviant behavior or several deviant behaviors (e.g., whiner ["! don't want to do that"] or aggressor ["That was my idea. You stole it, you creep"]), the other members must decide what to do about the difficult member. They can delay doing anything, which includes ignoring the deviant beha'\iors in the hope that the member will 'stop them and learn what is or is not appropriate communication. If the person does not
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In your work group, have you had to fire a.member due to the member playing a. deviant role? What tactics did your group members try to use. to get that memberJo assimilate into the group? How was the. tension handled?
"get it," the group members may resort to persuasive tactics, criticism, or verbal aggressiveness. As a last resort, the group may need to ((fire" the member. Often, less competent communicators lack the appropriate group skills for effective com- munication in groups, resulting in their being fired as members.
1561 Chapter 8 ~ Development of Small Group Roles
Note
To play the appropriate role for your group, remain flexible. Role refers to possessing the skills and abilities needed to engage in a variety of group mem- ber roles (Benne & Sheats, 1948). To maximize your role flexibility, it is essential that you (a) resist role rigidity, (b) place group goals above your own goals, and (c) identify how you can contribute to playing group task roles (i.e., roles that facil- itate group movement toward task accomplishment) and group building and malntcmmce roles (i.e., roles that strengthen the group's collective bond). Refer to the list of these task roles and buildillg and maintenance roles identified byBenne and Sheats (1948) in Table 8.2. The next time your learning or work groups meet,
Table 8.2 Task Roles [T] and Building and Maintenance Roles [BM]
Role< (^) .. Description. (^) ··.··.•.. ... (^) .·.^ ...·^ 'L· ....·.•. ---- •.· ..•...•. Compromiser Offers or accepts compromises [BM] Elaborator Supports suggestions through examples or evidence [T] Encourager Speaks positively to members and accepts their ideas [BM] Energizer Motivates the members to act lT] Follower Accepts members' ideas and goes along with group [BM] Harmonizer Reduces tension associated with conflict [BM] Information giver Offers relevant facts or draws upon personal experiences [T] Information seeker Requests facts and clarification [T] Initiator (^) Defines the problem, proposes solutions, and offers ideas [T] Interpreter Paraphrases what members have said [BM] Opinion giver Offers feelings about suggestions and options [T] Opinion seeker Asks for members' feelings about task [T]
Orientor Keeps group on task [T]
Source: Based on Benne, K., & Sheats, P. (1948). Functional roles of group members. Journal of Social Issues, 4, 41-49.
Chapter 8 ~ pevelop,ment of Small Group Roles 157
think about how the group's performance could be enhanced if members engaged in these roles in addition to both the formal and the infoimal roles already in place.
This chapter examined roles in the small group. To d9 so, we explained the func- tional approach to roles and identified the three general propositions of roles. We then differentiated among formal, informal, and deviant roles, with a specific focus on the identification and description of the five informal roles needed in any group. Finally, we addressed deviant role behaviors. With knowledge of how groups work and the importance of training in small groups, members most likely will perform the necessary formal and informal roles needed for group success. This notion also applies to the next chapter, which explores the role of leadership in small groups.
- \1\Thich role definition-functional approach or assigned roles-best describes the behaviors in your prior group experiences? VVhy?
Refer to Chapter 3 on traits. "Which communication and personality traits do you think are necessary for a group member to assume any of the three formal roles? VVhich communication and personality traits do you think are necessary for a group member to assume any of the five informal roles?
3. Refer to the descriptions of the five informal roles. In light of a group's depen- dence on technology, how might these descriptions change?
,--1_. In this chapter, we listed several deviant roles that disrupt the group's progress. What rules would you establish for handling group members who engage in these roles?
••· Choose a work group in which you have played (or still play) a formal role. How did you learn this role? How has this role affected your beliefs about yourself?
Ashford, S. J. (1986). Feedback-seeking in individual adaptation: A resource perspective. Academy of Management journal, 29,465-487. Beebe, S. A., & Masterson, J. T. (2003). Communicating in small groups: Principles and practices (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Benne, K., & Sheats, P. (1948). Functional roles of group members. journal of Social Issues, 4, 41-49. Bormann, E. G. (1990). Communicating in small groups: Theory and practice (5th ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
