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Defense Mechanisms among Our Students
By Margot Phaneuf, RN, Ph.D.
Introduction
We often believe that only psychiatric patients, especially psychotics, use defense mechanisms. This idea is widespread, but it is interesting to note how defense mechanisms function in the lives of rather sane people like you and me. We are also led to wonder which factors underlie certain (annoying) behaviours expressed by our students. Why do they wait until the last minute to study and seem unconcerned when they know that exams are just around the corner? Why do students fail to realize that spending too much time on recreational activities and non- academic work leads them straight to failure? The manner in which they express certain defense mechanisms illustrates how they cloud reality to avoid suffering, at least for a while.
and to mediate unproductive aspects of our own personality to achieve personal growth.
e défense : http://www.serpsy.org/formation_debat/defense.html
Applying a complex theory such as psychoanalysis on a daily basis contains its own set of risks, but its value is undeniable. Psychoanalysis makes it easier to grasp and understand (in itself a difficult task) our behaviour. Analyzing human behaviour through the defense mechanisms expressed by others allows us to acquire a great deal of knowledge about ourselves
Dominique Friard defended this approach when he wrote: “The study of defense mechanisms goes beyond that of psychopathology and psychotherapy. The study of defense mechanisms is common in areas such as prevention (including that of aggressive behaviour and violence), health education, medicine for physical disorders or the hiring of human resources.” (Friard, Dominique. Les mécanismes d Consulted on February 14, 2007).
What are defense mechanisms?
e reserved to describing and explaining abnormal behaviour expressed by psychotic patients.
se : http://psychiatriinfirmiere.free.fr/infirmiere/formation/psychologie/psychologie/mecanisme-defense.htm
Defense mechanisms were first described in 1874 by Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis and the most illustrious of Austrian psychiatrists. He identified strategies that we use to protect ourselves from suffering. At the time, defense mechanisms wer
The definition used at the time and which is still in use today is that of "a defensive mechanism developed by the ego when under pressure by the superego and external reality which enables us to fight anxiety." (Mécanismes de défen ).
The human mind in all of its vast complexity elaborates defense mechanisms so that it can function in the face of problems or setbacks in society and life in general.
Development and dynamics of defense mechanisms
It is essential to first understand that defense mechanisms emerge from a conflict between two personality components. First, there is the superego , which represents an individual’s moral anatomy, the internal psyche wherein the notions of good and evil and punishment and reward lie. The superego is inherited from parental authority.
conflict with one another.
Through the superego , the individual is conflicted by social constraints, pressures and subsequent guilt. As a result, the individual may be severely or unavoidably dragged “upwards” to a level that is considered noble, pure or perfect. The superego controls the id by putting the two components in
Superego
Ego
Id
Personality
Personality: componentsPersonality: components and interactionsand interactions
Require- ments of reality
On the opposite spectrum, the id drags an individual “downwards” by overcoming the constraints and taboos of the superego. The French term Ça is an approximate translation of the German term Das Es used by Freud and its English counterpart ( id ). It roughly means something that is undifferentiated, an impulse, and a source of energy that is often associated with a physical desire or the libido which in itself is associated with an individual’s sexuality.
The ego is an unconscious component which mediates the id and superego. The ego strives to find a balance between the id's instinctual requirements and the moral and social prescriptions of the superego. Patrick Juignet described this phenomenon when he wrote: “The ego acts as a regulator and as a controller.” Its main purpose is to manage the individual's various and contradictory necessity such as the conflict between drives and reality (2001, p. 46). The ego is not only associated with intelligence, but also with shrewdness and the willingness to possess. The ego is in contact with the outside world and has control over reality. The superego guides the ego and the id provides its energy. The ego satisfies within certain boundaries the needs of the id.
The individual attempts to defend himself in the context of a conflict between the id and the superego , to meet the requirements of reality, and also when facing an internal or external threat to his bio-psychological integrity. The individual uses the ego to erect mechanisms, thoughts, feelings, behaviours (usually unconsciously to forget, minimize, deform or project reality onto another), and so on to protect himself against stress, anxiety, loss of self-image, a conflict or any other threat. These are the defense mechanisms that he erects to protect himself.
immature defense mechanisms are more defensive in general and are characteristic of higher levels of distress.
Perry’s DMRS includes among mature ones, mechanisms such as repression, affiliation, altruism, anticipation, self-assertiveness, avoidance, humour, and sublimation. Immature mechanisms include splitting, intellectualization, omnipotence, rationalization, projection, and so on. Freud initially described 10 defense mechanisms, but the list has expanded over time with advances in psychiatry and psychotherapy.
Affiliation
Altruism
Anticipation Repression
Humour (^) Avoidance
Sublimation
Mature Defense Mechanisms
Among the psychiatrists who added to this list are Freud’s daughter Anna, Melanie Klein and a number of authors. (Cairn : http://www.cairn.info/article .php?ID_REVUE=PSYS&I D_NUMPUBLIE=PSYS_ 3&ID_ARTICLE=PSYS_ 3_0161 Consulted on February 15, 2007).
How do defense mechanisms become counter-productive?
Certain defense mechanisms are effective in controlling anxiety and protecting individuals from suffering, whereas others are inadequate and when used in a repetitive, compulsive manner. They thus become counter-productive. Defense mechanisms are not the cause of a given pathology; the individual’s use of the mechanisms is (i.e. frequency, intensity or context). Defense mechanisms are beneficial when they help an individual adapt to or tolerate difficult situations. These mechanisms become counter-productive when they cloud an individual’s awareness, cut him off from reality, or undermine his functioning and relationships.
Examples to illustrate how defense mechanisms are used
Observing the use of defense mechanisms in everyday life helps us understand certain behaviours expressed by others and also tells us a lot about ourselves. Listed below are real- life situations which will help the student understand how defense mechanisms are expressed in their world. A broad range of mechanisms is covered, but not all are listed.
Lisa’s illusions
Lisa is a young, brilliant student who has always been successful at school. For the past two months, she has been studying in a college away from home. It is also her first time away from her family. She loves her relatives and misses them. She feels insecure in her new environment. Lisa enjoys her studies, but has been unsuccessful in making new friends. She initially kept herself busy reading, doing her homework and finding equilibrium with her recreational activities. However, she recently began feeling down and spends long hours in front of the television. In her drive to compensate for her lack of affection, she fails to notice how she is spending her time. Her academic results reflect her new habits.
When her professor points out that her grades are declining and asks her about her recreational activities and the amount of time that she spends watching TV, Lisa replies that she is working and downplays her passive behaviour. She isn’t necessarily trying to lie, but she cannot accept or recognize that her failures are her fault. She inevitably expresses denial , a defense mechanism in which an individual subconsciously denies his thoughts, desires, behaviour, needs or some aspects of reality which he deems unacceptable or which desecrate his self-im
Lisa’s Defense Mechanisms
Denial
Compensation
Identification
age.
In addition, Lisa has also taken to the habit of munching during her favourite TV shows. That in itself is bad news as she already has a tendency to put on weight. Even worse, Lisa doesn’t realize how she is behaving. To compensate for her unfulfilled need for attention and affection, she pigs out in front of the TV set. This is expressed through compensation , a defense mechanism which is either a conscious or unconscious attempt to overcome genuine or perceived reality and to compensate for lack of affection and to relieve anxiety. Lisa compensates by overeating, but her over-indulgence could just as easily involve gambling or alcohol abuse. When questioned about her behaviour, she expresses denial regarding any problem and immediately discards such thoughts.
Lisa has also developed profound admiration for a slightly older classmate who has another educational background. This individual is extroverted, speaks loudly and colours her language with broad gestures and vulgar expressions. Lisa believes that such behaviour makes her classmate popular among her peers who find her funny. She therefore subconsciously attempts to imitate her peer to become more interesting. Lisa mimics her classmate’s speech and gestures and no longer acts like herself. This phenomenon is referred to as identification ,
Realizing that he is facing a difficult task, Paul experiences anxiety about his anticipated results. He nonetheless fears disappointing his parents. When they ask him about his problems, he responds: “It’s the teacher’s fault. He can’t explain anything and nobody understands what he says. He doesn’t give us enough time to study or to complete our assignments. It’s impossible to cover all that material at such short notice.”
Paul is therefore concealing his laziness from himself by throwing the responsibility of his shortcomings on another individual. This is known as projection , a defense mechanism in which an individual projects his own socially unacceptable feelings, intentions or behaviour, as well as responsibilities, on another person. As Paul cannot tolerate the loss of self-esteem arising from a failure, he blames his professor for his shortcomings.
Already uneasy at the psychological level, he is struck by the flu. Paul believes that he is dying. He keeps on barking orders at his mother and imposes all sorts of childish demands on her. She obviously spoils him.
This is regression, a mechanism in which an individual returns a lower developmental stage that is deemed more appealing and safe at the emotional level. A prolonged illness, even trivial, can easily lead to regression. In psychiatry, regression is usually expressed by
to
childlike behaviour.
Results Obtained from Results Obtainedfrom DefenseDefense MechanismsMechanisms
- Affiliation
- Anticipation
- Altruism
- Coping
- Avoidance
- Humour
- Repression
- Resilience
- Sublimation
- Activism
- Retroactive annulment
- Self-deprecation
- Compensation
- Denial
- Transferring
- Reactive formation
- Identification
- Intellectualization
- Omnipotence
- Projection
- Rationalization
- Passive-aggressive reaction
- Repression
- Regression
- Turning against the self
- Somatisation
M E C H A N I S M S P O S I T I V E
M E C H A N I S M S N E G A T I V E Adaptation
Non- adaptation
Defense mechanisms such as activism, omnipotence, regression and projection mask Paul’s behaviour, laziness and immaturity as they are difficult to accept for his self-esteem. These behaviours are counter-productive as they cloud reality and prevent Paul from functioning at the top of his abilities and succeeding.
Melanie’s problems
Melanie is another student. Her beloved mother suffers from cancer. This affects Melanie’s thoughts and disrupts her studies. She has a hard time concentrating and getting rid of this painful image. Despite her usual emotional state, she responds to her friend Gerta’s questions by detailing her mother's treatments rationally. This defense mechanism is referred to as intellectualization, and allows Melanie to express abstract and detached thinking to control or minimize overwhelming emotions.
Melanie would like to go out with her friends to the movies, to exercise with her boyfriend and to go on vacation, but she tells herself that she cannot as she must remain with her mother. She stays by her mother’s bedside, diligently attending to her needs and repressing any desire to go out, doing so only under serious circumstances. This defense mechanism is known as sublimation. It allows an individual to translate his socially unacceptable drives or feelings into morally and socially acceptable ones. Melanie therefore gets the satisfaction of accomplishing her mission and a feeling of having nobly accomplished her family duty.
Often annoyed by the requests of her mother to whom she refuses nothing, she treats her younger sister who tries to help her harshly. She constantly criticizes her, accusing her of being stiff and clumsy. Melanie is expressing displacement. Unable to tell her mother what she feels, she transfers her exasperation to her younger sister.
She feels overwhelmed by events. The other day, concerned by her mother’s condition, her studies and household chores, she completely forgot about her doctor’s appointment. The subconscious fears of the impending results and the emotional overload that she is experiencing have provoked repression or suppression. Suppression: the individual relegates to the unconscious an idea, emotion or experience which in the conscious realm is a source of pain or worry. An example, would be a dental appointment. (PédiaPsy. Les mécanismes de défense : http://membres.lycos.fr/vdc/def.htm).
Anticipation
Intellectualization
Repression
Displacement
Sublimation
Melanie’s Defense Mechanisms
Affective dissociation
To give herself strength to deal with the situation, Melanie thinks about the moment when her mother will have completed her chemotherapy and will once again be the head of the family. She will no longer have to care for household chores, do grocery shopping, and will be able to enjoy recreational activities with her friends. This adaptive defense mechanism, known as anticipation, allows a person to experience in advance the emotions associated with a given situation. This mechanism substitutes current anxiety for a future benefit. Anticipation is not always positive, as inevitably expecting negative situations can in itself become a source of anxiety.
There comes a time when Melanie’s mother enters the terminal phase of her illness. Melanie is deeply affected and is panicked by the upcoming math exam. She nonetheless coolly sits in front of her exam and completes it. Emotional dissociation allows her to detach herself from the emotional significance of her mother’s condition to focus on her exam.
Intellectualisation, sublimation and anticipation act like analgesics which prevent her pain from expressing itself. Emotional dissociation allows her to function by dissociation herself from the event. Repression allows Melanie to temporarily forget a painful appointment whereas
from the onset, their explanation. These feelings are therefore unconsciously magnified for defensive purposes". (Friard, Dominique. Les mécanismes de défense http://www.serpsy.org/formation_debat/defense.html )
during her
n is a defense mechanism hich allows Julie to push into the unconscious memories, thoughts, and morally or socially
wn as tockholm syndrome: The victim identifies with the aggressor. Julie overcomes her sorrow by
wers. This defense mechanism is known as ndoing. In response to a feeling of guilt, the individual attempts to undo his words or actions
expresses what she oesn’t. Conversion is generally associated with hysteria and is a manifestation of
Julie experienced many problems
childhood, beginning when her parents divorced. There were troubling moments as her father was suspected of abusing her. She was six years old at the time, but cannot remember the events evoked by her mother. She has forgotten everything about that period in her life. Julie represses the traumatic memories into the unconscious. Repressio
Repression
Undoing
Somatization (conversion)
Turning against the self
Emphasizing affects
Julie’s Defense Mechanisms
Stockholm syndrome
w unacceptable actions such as those committed by her father.
Julie doesn't really remember her father. She nonetheless has positive feelings for him and finds all kinds of excuses. He is sort of a fascinating figure for her. Julie experiences what is kno S repeating to herself that a father cannot be all that bad. To her, that is totally unimaginable.
Aggressive by nature, Julie is often hostile to her companions, who do not understand her behaviour. She later regrets her actions, experiences guilt and wishes to fix her mistake because she doesn’t wish to lose her friends. She repeatedly calls them and apologizes over and over again. She buys them modest gifts and even flo u through excuses, flattery or by offering presents.
Julie often complains of various physical ailments that she dramatizes and forcefully repeats to her friends in detail. She is concerned as she believes that she is suffering from a serious ailment. This defense mechanism, in which an individual's emotional anxiety manifests itself in the form of physical symptoms, is known as somatization or conversion. Julie’s body d transformation sensations in the limbs or members, of paresis, or paralysis.
Julie’s behaviour also results in her experiencing bouts of depression. In those moments, she sees herself in an extremely negative light, torments herself and feels guilty about her
disruptive behaviour. Julie tells herself that she’s not worth anything, that she doesn’t know why she is alive and that it would be best if she just disappeared. This is an extremely dangerous milestone in her evolution. This is an example of turning against the self ( devaluation ) wherein the individual is unable to express his aggressiveness towards others or having gone through all methods to express it, he thinks that he is guilty and turns this aggressiveness against himself. He feels anger against himself, blames himself and could
ses to forget, obnubilate or transform the affects of anxiety, hostility or aggressiveness, which she deems haviour and which she converts into guilt.
eal, reviews her notes and starts doing her
l overcomes the meaning of the action itself. It becomes predominant and even constrictive in the individual's
stronger. She masks her imperfections and limits by identifying with her supposedly perfect sister. She also identifies with or incorporates her
potentially commit suicide.
Emphasizing affects, repression, Stockholm syndrome, undoing, somatisation (conversion) and turning against the self (devaluation) are all mechanisms that Julie u
socially unacceptable be
Lucy’s perfectionism
Lucy is also a student. She is bright and successful in everything that she undertakes. She spares no effort as she is a perfectionist. Her room is always tidy, she studies every day and learns her subjects by heart. Lucy is an exemplary student. To guarantee her own success, she methodically follows routines. When she arrives home, she showers, prepares a Spartan m
homework.
She never sways from her routine as she would then experience anxiety and be gripped by fear of failing. She doesn't allow herself to be swayed. She has few recreational activities and friends. Lucy is engaged in ritualization , a defense mechanism that could potentially lead to an obsessive-compulsive disorder. Ritualization means establishing an order in which a number of tasks are to be carried out and which in turn take on a magical meaning. Following the ritua
Lucy’s Defense Mechanisms
Idealization (^) Ritualization
Avoidance (^) Identification
life. This mechanism protects the individual from anxiety, but it is not always efficient as he risks becoming a slave to his repetitive rituals.
Lucy’s role model is her elder sister, an extremely brilliant student in medicine. Lucy attributes real or imaginary qualities which she exaggerates to her sister. She is applying both idealization and identification. Idealization is a defense mechanism in which a person overemphasizes another individual’s qualities which he attributes to himself or to another. This mechanism makes Lucy feel
sister's values and qualities. This results in poor self-image because Lucy experiences the need to become another individual.
a mechanism through which an individual isolates himself from reality by mind-wandering rather than developing an efficient problem-resolution mechanism. In Paula’s case, this would involve studying and minding her own business.
er anxiety and tarnish her self-image, which is upheld through the process of rationalization.
nd somewhat boring studies and family responsibilities while maintaining her self- image.
Renaud the fighter
as
Resilience allowed him to adapt to his situation.
y a une vie après l’horreur ». http://www.unesco.org/courier/2001_11/fr/dires.htm
She has just learned that she has failed an exam. Sad and ashamed at first, she now reacts by saying: “Anyway, that course is useless,” and “I don’t care if I failed because I really hated that subject.” Paula is using rationalization , a defense mechanism through which an individual gives himself a more or less logical explanation for an act or decision produced by subconscious impulses. Paula’s decisions might appear logical, but they mask reality and her lack of work and interest. A genuine self-assessment of her feelings might cause h
Altruism, autistic fantasy and rationalization allow Paula to hide herself from her difficult reality a
Renaud has foreign roots and comes from a dysfunctional family. He spent his childhood going from one foster home to the next. Despite his difficult childhood, he managed to grow up in an acceptable manner. He works evenings and weekends to cover his expenses and studies. Despite his workload, he manages to obtain good grades. Renaud, in spite of his difficult origins, now pires to succeed in life.
Renaud’s Defense Mechanisms
Denial
Daydreaming
Splitting
Altruism
Resilience Humour
Boris Cyrulnik described this concept, illustrating that regardless of a child’s experiences, if he manages to use the affective resources at his disposal during the first few months of his life, he can then take advantage of the possibilities encountered thereafter, even if they are limited, and develop defense mechanisms that favour his adaptation to a hard life. (Boris Cyrulnik, Le Courrier UNESCO « Il ).
For Cyrulnik, splitting is an adaptive mechanism used by children or resilient individuals whereas for Freud and other psychiatrists: “It is a split between the conscious and unconscious”. (René Des Groseillers, Œuvres de Sigmund Freud
http://pages.globetrotter.net/desgros/freud/oeuvres/clivage.html). This mechanism in all of its pathological intensity can be found among psychotics and borderline personalities. Some refer to this process as dissociation. (Phebe Cramer, 2006, p. 234; http://www.lfsm.org/IMG/doc/LA_RESILIENCE.doc).
rugg
miserable existence into perspective. Altruism leads them to fix others' problems.
d realized that he had nothing, but nonetheless spent pleasant times with his friends.
adaptation and allows disadvantaged children to move ahead, to develop and to succeed in life.
Charlotte’s illness
d wounded in her self-image, Charlotte has since found the strength to deal with her problem.
nhance his self-image and to acquire a realistic appraisal of his strengths and weaknesses.
Youth from difficult backgrounds and resilient individuals employ certain defense mechanisms that are typical of their st le to survive. Denial allows these individuals to hide from a reality that is too hard to cope with. Daydreaming allows them to separate themselves from everyday reality and desolation. Humour helps them put their
Useful Defense Mechanisms for Resilient Personalities
e individual
- Abuse
- Neglect
- Abandonment
- Poverty, hunger
- Emotional deprivation
- Aggression
- Physical abuse
- Low self-image
- Disease
- Suffering
- Wandering
Th is combatting:
I mechanisms
- Affiliation
- Denial
- Avoidance
- Sublimation
- Altruism
- Humour litting
mplemented
Splitting is a mechanism first described by Melanie Klein. It allows an individual to control his or her anguish by dividing a perception of reality into two entities or visions, reacting at once in two different and even contradictory manners. An individual will perceive at once the positive and negative sides of a situation. For example, Renaud as a chil
Resilience along with the other accompanying mechanisms favours
Charlotte sadly contracted meningitis during an outbreak at her college. She was severely impaired and scarred by the disease. She now has a low attention span and has problems concentrating. Two of her fingers were amputated from her left hand. Discouraged at first an
Coping is the adaptive mechanism which has made this possible. It is an active process which allows an individual to adapt to a situation that is forced upon him by accepting the problems which underlie his condition and the circumstances of his new life. Coping allows an individual to e
In addition, Charlotte resorts to other adaptive mechanisms described above such as humour, avoidance, anticipation , and so on. She also has other tools at her disposal to deal with a low morale. She employs relaxation and psychological liberation strategies which allow her to better manage her anxiety. She practices relaxation and meditates on life, tools which serve her extremely well.
CONCLUSION
We have seen in the examples above situations which generate defense mechanisms, some of which are constructive and others which are counterproductive. Those described above do not illustrate truly pathological problems, but rather behaviours and emotions experienced by sane individuals who have trouble functioning. We have described students, but their reactions can be adapted to other environments such as work or family life. Defense mechanisms are present throughout our lives.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cramer, Phebe (2006). Protecting the Self: Defense Mechanisms in Action. New York, The Guilford Press.
Cyrulnik, Boris (2001). Le Courrier UNESCO « Il y a une vie après l’horreur » : http://www.unesco.org/courier/2001_11/fr/dires.htm. Consulted on February 24, 2007.
Cyrulnik, Boris (1999). La résilience et les mécanismes psychologiques de résistance : http://www.grep-mp.org/conferences/Parcours-19-20/resilience.htm. Consulted on March 14,
Desgroseillers, René. La psychanalyse. Le clivage du moi dans le processus de défense : http://pages.globetrotter.net/desgros/freud/oeuvres/clivage.html. Consulted on March 14,
Friard, Dominique. Les mécanismes de défense : http://www.serpsy.org/formation_debat/defense.html. Consulted on February 14, 2007.
Girard-Frésard, Jacqueline. Défends-toi, mon fils. Cairn info : http://www.cairn.info/article.php?ID_REVUE=PSYS&ID_NUMPUBLIE=PSYS_023&ID_A RTICLE=PSYS_023_0161. Consulted on February 15, 2007.
Juignet, Patrick (2001). Manuel de psychopathologie psychanalytique. Grenoble, Presses universitaires.
PédiaPsy. Les mécanismes de défense : http://membres.lycos.fr/vdc/def.htm.
Phaneuf, Margot (2006). Mécanismes d’adaptation et de défense chez le malade cancéreux. INFIRESSOURCES, Carrefour clinique, Section Soins en psychiatrie : http://www.infiressources.ca/fer/depotdocuments/Mecanismes_de_defense_et_cancer.pdf
Phaneuf, Margot (2007). L’observation en psychiatrie : une compétence à développer. INFIRESSOURCES, Carrefour clinique, Section Soins en psychiatrie. http://www.infiressources.ca/fer/depotdocuments/L_observation_en_psychiatrie.pdf
Psychiatrie infirmière. Mécanismes de défense : http://psychiatriinfirmiere.free.fr/infirmiere/formation/psychologie/psychologie/mecanisme- defense.htm. Consulted on February 14, 2007.
Vouche, Pierre (2003). La résilience : http://www.lfsm.org/IMG/doc/LA_RESILIENCE.doc. Consulted on March 14, 2007.
