Study with the several resources on Docsity
Earn points by helping other students or get them with a premium plan
Prepare for your exams
Study with the several resources on Docsity
Earn points to download
Earn points by helping other students or get them with a premium plan
Community
Ask the community for help and clear up your study doubts
Discover the best universities in your country according to Docsity users
Free resources
Download our free guides on studying techniques, anxiety management strategies, and thesis advice from Docsity tutors
Criminological theories: Define theories of laws and criminal justice prepared by Eric See and Elicia Kiese from Methodist university.
Typology: Study Guides, Projects, Research
1 / 48
This page cannot be seen from the preview
Don't miss anything!
Student Study Guide for
Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, Application
Sixth Edition
By Ronald L. Akers and Christine S. Sellers
Prepared by:
Eric See, Methodist University
Elicia Kieser, Methodist University
New York Oxford OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2013
Terms
Causality. A concept more applicable to the hard sciences. Does the appearance of X cause effect Y? In a perfect relationship, the appearance of X would always cause the effect Y each and every time the relationship is seen.
Empirical Validity. This is the most important factor in evaluating a theory, and means that the theory has been supported by research evidence.
Ideology. A belief system and a set of core values or philosophy. In a pure sense, an ideology states or explains how things should be, and a theory explains how things actually are.
Internal Logical Consistency. A theory needs to be presented in a logical manner and to have clearly stated propositions that agree with or do not contradict one another. Restated, does the theory make logical and consistent sense?
Macro. Macro theories of criminal behavior explain the “big picture” of crime—crime across the world or across a society. They attempt to answer why there are variations in group rates of crime. Other authors have used the terms “epidemiology” or social structural theories.
Micro. Micro theories of criminal behavior focus on a small group of offenders or on an individual crime. They attempt to answer why some individuals are more likely than others to commit crime. Other authors have used the terms “individual conduct” or processual theories.
Necessary Condition. This means that X must be present to produce effect Y. If X is not present, Y will not occur.
Parsimony. This refers to how many propositions, steps, or statements are involved. How simple is the theory?
Policy Implications. If the theory is empirically valid, what solutions are suggested.
Probabilistic Causality. A concept more applicable to the social sciences. X is more or less likely to cause effect Y. Restated, X tends to cause Y.
Scope. Refers to how much or how many types of crime or deviance the theory covers.
Soft Determinism. The view that human behavior is not wholly caused, determined, or
met these basic goals, the theory must then have some real world applications and policy implications.
Understanding these differences is key to understanding the often contradictory views of crime and deviance they purport to explain.
Chapter Review
The goal of criminological theory is to help one gain an understating of crime and criminal justice. Theories cover the making and the breaking of the law, criminal and deviant behavior, as well as patterns of criminal activity. Individual theories may be either macro or micro. Theories can be used to guide policy making, and can be evaluated on a number of criteria including: clarity, scope, parsimony, testability, practical usefulness, and empirical validity.
Questions
would you consider that theory to be successful? Why or why not?
be before you would implement it in your institution? Policy application of Theory A has yielded modest results in preventing crime with low costs to implement. Policy application of Theory B has yielded a high success rate at preventing crime with very high costs to implement. Which theory would you prefer and why?
biology, political science, and criminal justice. Do you feel that the integration of all of these disciplines holds the best chance for explaining the most crime, or should the disciplines remain pure?
Terms
Absolute Deterrence. This refers to the amount of crime that has been prevented simply due to the fact that a formal system is in place so that an individual could be legally punished for committing a criminal act.
Acute Conformists. One of three types of individuals coined by Pogarsky. These individuals comply with the law because it is the right thing to do.
Boot Camps. Programs used in place of incarceration, and based upon a military model of discipline and order. These programs are designed to have a deterrent effect on young offenders, but they have generally failed to yield long-term reductions in recidivism.
Celerity. One of the three elements of deterrence. Celerity refers to how quickly an individual is punished after committing a crime.
Certainty. One of the three elements of deterrence. Certainty refers to how likely it is that an individual will be caught and punished for a crime that he or she has committed. Certainty is the most important of the three elements.
Classical Criminology. A school of thought based upon utilitarian notions of free will and the greatest good for the greatest number. At its core, classical criminology refers to a belief that a crime is committed after an individual weighs the pros and cons. The decision to commit a crime is a rational decision, and is best countered through a deterrence-based system.
Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED). This refers to a set of practices designed to make potential criminal targets less attractive. The belief that crime is a rational act is used to make a potential target less attractive to a criminal, and thus not a “rational” target.
Deterrable Offenders. One of three types of individuals coined by Pogarsky. This is the only group that may be deterred by threat of sanctions.
Deterrence Theory. A core principle of classical school and rational choice theories. This theory states that crime can be controlled through the use of punishments that combine the proper degrees of certainty, severity, and celerity. Deterrence is a key element in the U.S. justice system.
Expected Utility Principle. Economic theory which states that people will act in a manner that increases their benefits and reduces their losses. This ties in closely with classical criminology and, by definition, rational choice theory, where people seek to increase their pleasure and reduce their pain.
be less likely to violate the law in the future.
Thoughtfully Reflective Decision Making (TDRM). This term describes a process of good decision making where all the relevant information is collected and analyzed, and possible solutions and alternative solutions are thought about. Reflection on what went right and wrong is also part of the process.
Key Concepts
alternative to what was often an abusive, cruel, inhumane, and arbitrary system of justice.
criminological perspective. The Classical School is reflected in both the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution.
individuals have the ability to make a rational choice to either follow the law, or to violate it. A system of punishments is necessary to deter individuals from committing criminal acts. Committing criminal acts brings a certain amount of pleasure to the individual. To counteract this pleasure, punishments must be provided that carry with them enough pain to outweigh the pleasure received by committing a deviant or criminal act.
primary elements. Programs such as Scared Straight have attempted to use fear and deterrence to keep young offenders from committing additional crimes. Boot camps have attempted to use fear, discipline, and brief incarceration to keep offenders from committing additional crimes. These types of programs are controversial, and have yielded mixed results at best.
it most likely is not the deciding factor. Most people will not commit criminal acts because they believe it is wrong to do so, and because they have been socialized to follow the norms of society.
Chapter Review
Deterrence theory states that if punishment is certain, severe, and swift, then people will refrain from committing criminal acts. Deterrence theory is at the core of the criminal justice system, and the basis for most of strict punishments and long prisons sentences. Is deterrence theory empirically valid, however? That is a difficult question to answer. Studies have found mixed support for deterrence theory. Modifications like rational choice and routine activity theory have found mixed support as well.
Questions
Notable Individuals
Beccaria, Cesare: (1738–1794) Italian nobleman, prominent in the eighteenth century,
wrote On Crimes and Punishment (1764).
Bentham, Jeremy: (1748–1832) Jurist and philosopher, prominent in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, advocated abolishing the death penalty.
Terms
Adoption Studies. Studies that have been done with children reared by biological parents compared to their siblings or twins reared by adoptive parents in an attempt to demonstrate a genetic link to criminal behavior. Results have been mixed.
Atavism. Part of the theory developed by Lombroso in which a person is a “born criminal.” Atavistic or primitive man is a throwback to an earlier stage of human evolution, and will commit crimes against society unless specifically restrained from doing so.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS). Mednick’s theory that individuals who inherit a slower than normal autonomic nervous system learn to control aggressive or antisocial behavior slowly or not at all. This leads to increased violence and criminal activity.
Behavioral Genetics. This covers a range of theories in which a combination of genetics and the environment influences behavior.
Biological School. A view of crime, also referred to as biological positivism, that claims that criminal behavior is the result of biological or inborn defects or abnormalities. This view directly conflicts with classical criminology, which claims that criminal activity is the result of free will. Under a biological perspective, deterrence is of little value.
Biosocial Theories. Theories that examine the combined effects of biology, behavior, and the environment on criminal behavior.
Biosocial Arousal Theory. This theory states that an individual’s level of arousal works in conjunction with the social environment. Those with low levels of arousal are less likely to learn appropriate ways to deal with aggression and violence and thus are more prone to commit crime.
Born Criminal. One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. This type of criminal is the most dangerous, and can be identified through his or her stigmata or identifying characteristics.
Concordance. This examines the degree to which criminal or law-abiding behavior of siblings, identical twins, or fraternal twins is similar to one another.
Criminaloid. One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. The criminaloid is motivated by passion, and will commit criminal acts under the proper circumstances.
Determinism. In considering biological theories, determinism refers to the view that an individual’s criminal lifestyle or actions is the direct result of genetic inheritance or biological predisposition. Soft Determinism , as explained by Matza, examines the role of determinism, but also acknowledges that other factors, from environmental to choice,
may be part of the equation. This assumes that behavior is not completely and strictly determined by the individual’s genetic or biological makeup.
Evolutionary Theory. A broad-based view that certain types of criminal behavior are genetic and passed down from one generation to the next through evolutionary processes of natural selection and survival.
Gene-Based Evolutionary Theory. A general approach that suggests that the process of natural selection has resulted in criminal genetic tendencies that are passed down from generation to generation.
Insane Criminal. One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. The insane criminal type includes idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, psychotics, and the mentally unstable. These criminals are unable to control their actions; however, they do not possess the stigmata or identifying characteristics of the born criminal.
Mental Functioning and Delinquency. A neurophysiology approach that believed that delinquents were feebleminded or had some form of a learning disability. This approach has also been used to look for a relationship between IQ and crime. Additionally, aspects of mental functioning, verbal ability, and mental flexibility have been examined.
Stigmata. Characteristics claimed by Lombroso that could be used to identify the “born criminal.” They include things such as extra fingers or toes, large lips, receding chins, excessive skin wrinkles, and large monkey-like ears.
Testosterone and Criminal Aggressiveness. A biochemistry approach that looks at the relationship between the male hormone testosterone and antisocial aggressive behavior.
Key Concepts
acceptance in the field. While controversy still exists when trying to establish a relationship between IQ and crime, for example, biologically based theories remain an important part of criminological theory.
Questions
Notable Individuals
Lombroso, Cesare: (1836–1909) First to use scientific method in criminology, wrote The Criminal Man (1876).
Eysenck, Hans J.: Proposed the biosocial “arousal” theory.
Ferrero, William: Coauthored Female Offender (1958 [1897]) with Lombroso.
Goring, Charles: (1870–1919) British criminologist, proposed the idea that criminals are shorter, weigh less, and “mentally defective,” wrote The English Convict: A Statistical Study (1913).
Hooten, E. A.: (1887–1954) Anthropologist and neo-Lombrosian, proposed the idea that crime is caused by physical inferiority, wrote Crime and the Man (1939).
Mednick, Sarnoff: Developed the best-known and most systematically stated and tested modern biosocial theory.
Terms
California Psychological Inventory (CPI). A test designed to measure personality traits such as dominance, tolerance, and sociability.
Ego. One of the three components of Freudian personality development. The ego is referred to as the executive or rational part of the personality, and it acts to keep the id in check.
Electra Complex. This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6) in which a girl develops a desire to possess her father and a hatred and fear of her mother.
Freudian. This view of behavior focuses on early childhood development. It claims that criminal activity is the result of a conflict between the id, ego, and superego, which can be traced back to a conflict in early childhood.
Id. One of the three components of Freudian personality development. The id contains basic instincts and drives, such as the need for food, water, sex, and pleasure.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). A test designed to use different scales of questions to measure abnormal personality traits, such as depression, hysteria, paranoia, psychopathology, and compulsiveness.
Oedipus Complex. This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6) in which a boy develops a desire to possess his mother and a hatred and fear of his father.
Personality Theory. This theory believes that criminal activity is the result of a defective, deviant, or inadequate personality. Examples of deviant personality traits include hostility, impulsiveness, aggression, and sensation-seeking.
Psychoanalytic Theory. A general perspective stating that the causes of criminal behavior can be found in the mind of the individual.
Psychological Counseling. The process by which an underlying mental issue can be addressed. The assumptions are that only by treating an individual who has committed a criminal act as someone who is sick and in need of treatment can the problem truly be addressed; punishing the criminal act without addressing the root mental cause is of little or no value; and counseling is the only way in which the root mental cause can be dealt with adequately.
Psychological Theory. A general perspective that looks to the psychological functioning, development, and adjustment of an individual in explaining criminal or deviant acts. Under this approach, the criminal act itself is important only in that it highlights an underlying mental issue.
of counseling alone to reduce criminal activity. It is also doubted that the true psychopath can benefit from any type of counseling or treatment.
Questions
Notable Individuals
Freud, Sigmund: (1856–1939) Psychologist, pioneer of psychoanalysis and
psychological theory, theorized the Oedipus complex and the Electra complex, coined the terms id, superego, ego, sex drive, and libido.
Friedlander, Kate: Wrote The Psychoanalytic Approach to Juvenile Delinquency
(1947).
Terms
Behavior Theory. Burgess and Akers expanded differential association and included elements of behavior theory and behavior modification. This expansion allowed them to identify the learning process, and included elements such as operant behavior, respondent conditioning, discriminative stimuli, and schedules of reinforcement.
Definitions. One of the four main concepts of Akers’s social learning theory. The process through which an individual rationalizes, evaluates, and assigns right and wrong. Definitions of the law may be general or specific. One may have the general view that the law needs to be obeyed, but a specific view that a 20-year-old who can fight in a war should be allowed to drink a beer. This person may follow the law in general, but violate the liquor law.
Differential Association. A theory of crime and delinquency developed by Sutherland. This is a social learning theory presented in nine steps. Criminality is basically the result of engaging in inappropriate behaviors exhibited by those with whom we interact. Also, one of the four main concepts of Akers’s social learning theory. Akers retains the process of differential association, and expands upon it in his theory.
Differential Identification. A modification of differential association theory. In this view, people commit criminal or delinquent acts if they believe that it will lead to acceptance by and approval of these important people in their lives.
Differential Reinforcement. One of the four main concepts of Akers’s social learning theory. The concept refers to the potential rewards and punishments for committing or not committing a criminal or deviant act. This process includes a consideration of punishments and rewards that have been received in the past, as well as present and future rewards and punishments.
Discriminative Stimuli. Internal or external factors or cues that aid an individual in determining an appropriate response to a given situation.
Imitation. One of the four main concepts of Akers’s social learning theory. Behavior modeled by others for an individual may be copied by that individual. Impressions of the individual doing the modeling, along with perceived risks and rewards, will factor into the imitation decision.
Negative Reinforcement. This refers to an individual escaping something painful such as a punishment or reprimand by committing a certain act.
Neutralizing Definitions. This type of definition helps a person justify committing a crime by making it seem that although the act itself might be wrong, under certain conditions it is all right.
Operant Conditioning. The view that voluntary actions and decisions made by an
structure, theoretically defined structural variables, and differential social location.
Chapter Review/Keeping Tabs
If crime is not the result of choice, biology, or psychology, then how can it be explained? The theorists in Chapter 5 believe that crime is learned through interaction with others in one’s social environment. Social learning theorists of criminology state that criminal behavior, like other behaviors in life, are a learned activity. Social learning theorists seek to understand and explain how a person learns to become criminal, and then to develop strategies and programs that model appropriate behavior.
Questions
Notable Individuals
Akers, Ronald: Sociologist and criminologist, collaborated with Robert Burgess to develop the differential reinforcement theory, wrote Deviant Behavior: A Social Learning Approach (1973, 1977).
Bandura, Albert: Psychologist and child development expert, examined stages of development and concluded that conduct develops at particular stages when certain interaction stimuli are present.
Burgess, Robert L.: Behavior sociologist, collaborated with Ronald Akers to develop a “differential association-reinforcement” theory of criminal behavior.
Elliot, Delbert: Developed an integrated theory, wrote Explaining Delinquency and Drug Use (1985).
Sutherland, Edwin: (1883–1950) Developed the differential association theory, wrote The Professional Thief (1937) and Principles of Criminology (1947).
