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The Male and Female Reproductive Systems, Lecture notes of Anatomy

Louisiana Tech UniversityAnatomy

A detailed overview of the male and female reproductive systems, including the structure and function of the testes, epididymis, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and other key components. It covers the process of spermatogenesis, the production and maturation of sperm cells, as well as the role of hormones like testosterone and the gonadotropins in regulating these processes. On the female side, the document describes the structure and function of the ovaries, the process of follicle maturation and ovulation, and the changes that occur in the uterus during the menstrual cycle. The document also touches on topics like cryptorchidism, emission, ejaculation, and contraceptive methods. Overall, this comprehensive resource offers a deep dive into the complex and fascinating world of human reproduction.

Typology: Lecture notes

2023/2024

Uploaded on 05/17/2024

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CHAPTER 22
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
22.1 MEIOSIS AND SEX CELL PRODUCTION
- connected sets of organs and glands
- sex cells are produced in some of the organs by a process called meiosis Fig. 22.2
A. Meiosis – includes two successive divisions – the first and second meiotic divisions
1. Meiosis I ( first division ) separates homologous chromosome pairs Fig. 22.1
a. these pairs are the same, gene for gene – but may not be identical since one
of each pair comes from the mother and the other from the father
b. before this division, each homologous chromosome is replicated, so it
consists of two identical DNA strands called chromatids
a) the chromatids are attached at regions called centromeres
2. After meiosis II ( second division ), each of the cells has one member of each
homologous pair – is called haploid ( has only one set of chromosomes )
a. this division separates the chromatids
B. Steps of Meiosis Figure 22.1
1. Prophase I
a. individual chromosomes are threadlike; shorten and thicken
b. nucleoli and nuclear envelope disappear
c. microtubules begin to build spindle
d. homologous chromosomes line up side by side, tightly intertwine
e. synapsis occurs Figure 22.3
1) the chromatids of homologous chromosomes contact one another at
various points, the chromatids break and exchange parts, forming
chromatids with new combinations of genetic information
2) this cross-over produces chromatids that contain genetic information from
the father and the mother Figure 22.4
2. Metaphase I
a. chromosome pairs line up midway between the poles
b. each chomosome attaches to spindle fibers from one pole
1) this alignment is random with respect to maternal and paternal
chromosomes
3. Anaphase I
a. homologous pairs separate – each replicated member moves to opposite pole
4. Telophase I
a. original cell divides in two
b. nuclear membranes form; nucleoli reappear; spindle fibers disassemble
5. Prophase II
a. chromosomes condense and reappear, still replicated, move midway between
poles
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CHAPTER 22

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

22.1 MEIOSIS AND SEX CELL PRODUCTION

  • connected sets of organs and glands
  • sex cells are produced in some of the organs by a process called meiosis Fig. 22. A. Meiosis – includes two successive divisions – the first and second meiotic divisions
    1. Meiosis I ( first division ) separates homologous chromosome pairs Fig. 22. a. these pairs are the same, gene for gene – but may not be identical since one of each pair comes from the mother and the other from the father b. before this division, each homologous chromosome is replicated, so it consists of two identical DNA strands called chromatids a) the chromatids are attached at regions called centromeres
    2. After meiosis II ( second division ), each of the cells has one member of each homologous pair – is called haploid ( has only one set of chromosomes ) a. this division separates the chromatids B. Steps of Meiosis Figure 22.
    3. Prophase I a. individual chromosomes are threadlike; shorten and thicken b. nucleoli and nuclear envelope disappear c. microtubules begin to build spindle d. homologous chromosomes line up side by side, tightly intertwine e. synapsis occurs Figure 22.
      1. the chromatids of homologous chromosomes contact one another at various points, the chromatids break and exchange parts, forming chromatids with new combinations of genetic information
      2. this cross-over produces chromatids that contain genetic information from the father and the mother Figure 22.
    4. Metaphase I a. chromosome pairs line up midway between the poles b. each chomosome attaches to spindle fibers from one pole
      1. this alignment is random with respect to maternal and paternal chromosomes
    5. Anaphase I a. homologous pairs separate – each replicated member moves to opposite pole
    6. Telophase I a. original cell divides in two b. nuclear membranes form; nucleoli reappear; spindle fibers disassemble
    7. Prophase II a. chromosomes condense and reappear, still replicated, move midway between poles
  1. Metaphase II a. replicated chromosomes attach to spindle fibers
  2. Anaphase II a. centromeres separate; chromatids move to opposite poles – they are now called chromosomes
  3. Telophase II a. nuclear envelope forms around chromosomes
  4. Cell division – each of the two cells from meiosis I divides into two cells a. each cell has a haploid number of chromosomes = 23 chromosomes b. in males, these four cells mature into four sperm cells c. in females, one cell becomes the egg, the other three cells are called polar bodies and disintegrate
  5. Meiosis generates astounding genetic variety. a. There are more than 8 million possible combinations of the 23 chromosomes in each gamete. b. At fertilization, there is the possibility of more than 70 trillion genetic combinations. c. Crossing-over produces even more variability. Figure 22. 22.2 ORGANS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
  • specialized to produce and maintain the male sex cells
  • transport these cells to female reproductive tract
  • secrete male sex hormones A. Testes – primary sex organs Figure 22.
  1. Ovoid structures about 5 cm. in length and 3 cm. in diameter.
  2. Suspended by spermatic duct; contained within the cavity of the saclike scrotum. B. Descent of Testes Figure 22.
  3. In fetus, testes originate from masses of tissue posterior to parietal peritoneum, near the developing kidneys.
  4. About a month or two before birth, these organs descend to lower abdominal cavity and pass through abdominal wall into the scrotum.
  5. Stimulated to descend by testosterone , secreted by developing testes.
  6. A fibromuscular cord, the gubernaculum, is attached to each developing testis and extends into inguinal region of abdominal cavity. a. fastened to the skin of scrotum b. testis descends, guided by gubernaculum, passing through the inguinal canal , of abdominal wall and entering scrotum, where it remains anchored by the gubernaculum
  7. Each testis carries a developing vas deferens , blood vessels, and nerves. a. these structures later form parts of the spermatic cord by which the testis is suspended in the scrotum
  8. If the testes fail to descend into the scrotum, they will not produce sperm cells. a. cryptorchidism is this condition – if left untreated, sperm producing cells
  1. Their glandular tissue secretes a slightly alkaline fluid that helps regulate the pH of the tubular contents.
  2. The secretions also include fructose that provides energy to the sperm cells, and prostaglandins which stimulate muscular contractions within female reproductive organs, aiding the movement of sperm cells toward the egg cell.
  3. At emission, their contents empty into ejaculatory ducts. D. Prostate Gland Figure 22.5 and 22.
  4. A chestnut-shaped structure about 4 cm. across and 3 cm. thick that surrounds the beginning of the urethra ( prostatic urethra), just inferior to the urinary bladder.
  5. Many tubular glands are enclosed in connective tissue; the ducts of these glands open into the urethra.
  6. Secretes a thin, milky, alkaline fluid, which neutralizes the sperm-containing fluid. Also enhances the sperm’s motility. Neutralizes the acidic secretions of the vagina. Includes citrate, a nutrient for sperm, and prostate-specific antigen (PSA), an enzyme which helps liquefy semen following ejaculation. E. Bulbourethral Glands ( Cowper’s glands ) Figure 22.
  7. These two small structures, about 1 cm. in diameter, are located inferior to the prostate gland, lateral to the membranous urethra, and enclosed by fibers of the external urethral sphincter muscle.
  8. Composed of many tubes whose epithelial linings secrete a mucouslike fluid. a. released in response to sexual stimulation – lubricates the end of the penis F. Semen
  9. This fluid is conveyed to the outside during ejaculation – consists of sperm cells and secretions from the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands. a. is slightly alkaline ( pH 7.5 ) b. includes prostaglandins and nutrients
  10. Volume varies from 2 to 5 ml. with the average number of sperm cells being about 120 million per ml.
  11. They remain nonmotile until mixed with secretions of accessory glands.
  12. Cannot fertilize an egg until they enter the female reproductive tract. a. development of this ability is called capacitation
  1. the acrosomal membranes are weakened
  1. Can live many weeks in ducts of male reproductive tract – usually only capable of fertilizing an oocyte 24-48 hours after entering the female reproductive tract 22..3 MALE EXTERNAL ACCESSORY REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS A. Scrotum
  2. A pouch of skin and subcutaneous tissue hanging from lower abdominal region posterior to the penis. a. smooth muscle fibers, the dartos muscle , can pull the scrotum closer to the abdomen when exposed to the cold
  1. sperm production needs an environment about 5F lower than body temperature
  1. Pouch is divided into two chambers by a median septum. a. each chamber encloses a testis B. Penis Figure 22.
  2. Cylindrical organ that conveys urine and semen through the urethra to the outside.
  3. The body , or shaft, is composed of three columns of erectile tissue. a. a pair of dorsally located corpora cavernosa b. a single, centrally located corpus spongiosum c. a tough capsule of white dense connective tissue, tunica albuginea , surrounds each column
  4. Corpus spongiosum, through which the urethra extends, enlarges at its distal end to from a sensitive, cone-shaped glans penis. a. covers the ends of the corpora cavernosa and bears the urethral opening – the external urethral orifice b. skin of glans is very thin, hairless, contains sensory receptors for sexual stimulation c. loose fold of skin called the prepuce ( foreskin ) begins just posterior to the glans and extends anteriorly to cover it
  1. circumcision removes the prepuce
  1. The columns of erectile tissue separate at the root of the penis. a. corpora cavernosa diverge laterally in the perineum and are firmly attached to the inferior surface of the pubic arch by connective tissue b. these diverging parts form the crura of the penis c. corpus spongiosum in enlarged between the crura as the bulb of the penis, which is attached to membranes of the perineum C. Erection, Orgasm, and Ejaculation
  2. Erection Figure 22. a. parasysympathetic impulses from the sacral portion of spinal cord release nitric oxide, dilating arteries to penis, increasing blood flow into erectile tissues. b. venous return is reduced – consequently, blood accumulates in erectile tissues and penis swells and elongates
  3. Orgasm a. culmination of sexual stimulation b. pleasurable feeling of physiological and psychological release c. accompanied in a male by emission and ejaculation
  4. Emission Figure 22. a. movement of sperm cells from the testes and secretions from the prostate gland and seminal vesicles into the urethra, where they are mixed to form semen b. occurs in response to sympathetic nerve impulses causing peristaltic contractions in smooth muscles within walls of testicular ducts, epididymides, vasa deferentia, and ejaculatory ducts c. other rhythmic contractions of the seminal vesicle and prostate gland empty them

in a spiral.

  1. Tail (flagellum ) consists of several microtubules enclosed in an extension of the cell membrane. a. mitochondria provide ATP for the lashing movement of flagellum 22.6 HORMONAL CONTROL OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS A. Hypothalamic and Pituitary Hormones
  2. Around 10 years of age, the hypothalamus begins secreting gonadotropin-releasing hormone ( GnRH ) into the anterior pituitary gland. Figure 22. a. anterior pituitary secretes the gonadotropins :
  1. interstitial cell-stimulating hormone ( ICSH ) – promotes the development of interstitial cells ( cells of Leydig ) of the testes, and they secrete male sex hormones
  2. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH ) – stimulates sustentacular cells of the seminiferous tubules to proliferate, grow, mature, and respond to the effects of testosterone a) in the presence of FSH and testosterone, these cells stimulate the spermatogenic cells to under spermatogenesis b) sustentacular cells also secrete the hormone inhibin , which inhibits the anterior pituitary by negative feedback and prevents oversecretion of FSH B. Male Sex Hormones
  1. These are termed androgens. Most produced by interstitial cells of testes, but small amounts synthesized in adrenal cortex.
  2. Testosterone is the most abundant. Secreted and transported in blood, loosely attached to plasma proteins. a. combines with receptor molecules usually in the nuclei of its target cells b. in the target cells of the prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and male external accessory organs, it is first converted to dihydrotestosterone , which stimulates cells in these organs c. its secretion begins during fetal development and continues a few weeks after birth – then ceases d. androgen production usually accelerates between ages of 13 and 15 e. puberty occurs when an individual becomes reproductively functional f. testosterone production continues throughout the life of a male C. Actions of Testosterone
  3. Embryonic cells of the testes produce testosterone after about 8 weeks of age. a. stimulates development of male reproductive organs b. later in development, causes testes to descend into the scrotum
  4. During puberty, it stimulates enlargement of the testes and accessory organs of the reproductive system, as well as development of male secondary sex characteristics. a. increased growth of body hair – face, chest, axillary region, pubic region b. enlargement of larynx, thickening of vocal folds c. thickening of skin

d. increased muscular growth, broadening shoulders, narrowing of waist e. thickening and strengthening of bones

  1. Increases rate of cellular metabolism and production of red blood cells by stimulating release of erythropoietin.
  2. Stimulates sexual activity by affecting certain portions of the brain. D. Regulation of Male Sex Hormones
  3. Hypothalamus regulates testosterone output by negative feedback. Figure 22. a. as concentration of testosterone rises, hypothalamus is inhibited – stops stimulation of anterior pituitary by GnRH b. pituitary’s secretion of LH (ICSH) falls in response, and amount of testosterone released by interstitial cells decreases
  4. Levels of testosterone decrease during and after the male climacteric , a decline in sexual function that occurs with aging. 22.7 ORGANS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM A. Ovaries Figure 22.
  • solid, ovoid structures about 3.5 cm long, 2 cm wide, and 1 cm thick
  • each one is located in a shallow depression ( ovarian fossa ) on each side in the lateral wall of the pelvic cavity B. Ovary Attachments Figure 22.
  1. Each ovary is held in place by several ligaments – the largest is the broad ligament. a. this ligament also attached to the uterine tubes and uterus
  2. The suspensory ligament holds the ovary at its upper end – contains blood vessels and nerves.
  3. The ovarian ligament attaches the lower end of the ovary to the uterus. C. Ovary Descent
  4. Ovaries originate from masses of tissue posterior to the parietal peritoneum, near the developing kidneys.
  5. They descend to their locations during development. D. Ovary Structure
  6. Two distinct regions in an ovary: a. an inner medulla – composed mostly of loose connective tissue; contains many blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers b. the outer cortex – consists of more compact tissue; granular appearance due to tiny masses of cells called ovarian follicles
  7. Cuboidal epithelial cells ( germinal epithelium ) covers the ovary’s free surface.
  8. A layer of dense connective tissue ( the tunica albuginea ) lies beneath epithelium E. Primordial Follicles Figure 22.29a
  9. Several million of these form in the cortex during prenatal development. a. each consists of a single, large cell called a primary oocyte , which is closely surrounded by a layer of flattened epithelial cells called follicular cells
  10. The primary oocytes begin to undergo meiosis during development, but the process soon halts and does not continue until puberty.

b. middle muscular layer is the myometrium

  1. largely consists of bundles of smooth muscle fibers longitudinal, circular, and spiral patterns; interlaced with connective tissues c. outer serosal layer is the perimetrium
  2. covers the body of the uterus and part of the cervix C. Vagina Figure 22.
  1. Fibromuscular tube, about 9 cm. long, extends from the uterus to the outside.
  2. Conveys uterine secretions, receives erect penis during sexual intercourse, and provides the open channel for offspring during birth.
  3. Posterior to the urinary bladder and urethra, anterior to rectum – attached to those structures by connective tissues. a. upper ¼ separated from rectum by a pouch ( rectouterine pouch )
  4. The vaginal orifice is partially closed by a thin membrane of connective tissue and stratified squamous epithelium called the hymen.
  5. Three layers to the wall: a. inner mucosal layer is stratified squamous epithelium; drawn into many longitudinal and transverse ridges ( vaginal rugae ); no mucous glands in this layer b. middle muscular layer consists mainly of smooth muscle fibers in longitudinal and circular patterns 1) thin band of striated muscle at lower end of vagina – helps close vaginal opening c. outer fibrous layer consists of dense connective tissue interlaced with elastic fibers – attaches vagina to surrounding organs 22.9 FEMALE EXTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS Figure 22. A. Labia Majora
  6. These enclose and protect the other external reproductive organs.
  7. Composed of rounded folds of adipose tissue and thin layer of smooth muscle, covered by skin. a. skin includes hairs, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands
  8. Lie close together and are separated longitudinally by the pudendal cleft, which includes the urethral and vaginal openings.
  9. They merge anteriorly to form a medial, rounded elevation of adipose tissue called the mons pubis.
  10. At posterior ends, they taper and merge into the perineum near the anus. B. Labia Minora
  11. Flattened longitudinal folds between the labia majora; extend along either side of a space called the vestibule.
  12. Composed of connective tissue richly supplied with blood vessels – covered with stratified squamous epithelium.
  13. They merge posteriorly with the labia majora; anteriorly, they converge to form a hoodlike covering around the clitoris.

C. Clitoris

  1. A small projection at anterior end of vulva between the labia minora.
  2. Composed of two columns of erectile tissue called corpora cavernosa. a. these are separated by a septum b. the columns diverge to form crura , which, in turn, attach to the sides of the pubic arch
  3. A small mass of erectile tissue forms a glans at the anterior end. a. richly supplied with sensory nerve fibers D. Vestibule
  4. A region enclosed by the labia minora.
  5. Vagina opens into posterior portion, urethra opens in the midline.
  6. Vestibular glands ( Bartholin’s glands ) lie on either side of vaginal opening. E. Erection, Lubrication, and Orgasm Figure 22.
  7. Following stimulation of erectile tissues, parasympathetic impulses lead to the dilation of arteries, thus increasing blood flow to region.
  8. Vestibular glands secrete mucus into the vestibule.
  9. Culmination of stimulation is an orgasm, the pleasurable sensation of physiological and psychological release. 22.10 OOGENESIS AND THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE
  10. At puberty, some primary oocytes are stimulated to continue meiosis.
  11. A primary oocyte divides into two unequal cells – one cell, the secondary oocyte , is large, and the other, the first polar body , is very small.
  12. The secondary oocyte represents a future egg cell (ovum). a. if fertilized by uniting with a sperm cell, the oocyte divides unequally to produce a tiny second polar body and a large, fertilized egg cell, or zygote , that can divide and develop into an embryo G. Follicle Maturation Figure 22.
  13. The ovaries enlarge at puberty in response to increased FSH from the anterior pituitary. Some primordial follicles mature at the same time. a. oocytes enlarge, and surrounding follicular cells mitotically divide giving rise to a layer of stratified epithelium composed of granulosa cells b. a layer of glycoprotein, the zona pellucida , gradually separates the oocyte from the granulosa cells c. the structure is now called a primary follicle
  14. Follicular cells continue to divide, and when there are 6 – 12 layers of cells, fluid- filled spaces appear among them. The spaces join to form a cavity ( antrum ), and the oocyte is pressed to one side of the follicle. a. this is now called a secondary follicle
  15. Maturation takes 10 – 14 days. The mature follicle ( preovulatory, or Graafain, follicle ) is about 10 mm. in diameter. a. the fluid-filled cavity bulges outward on the surface of the ovary b. the oocyte is a large, spherical cell, surrounded by a thick zona pellucida,

levels of FSH and LH. a. FSH stimulates maturation of an ovarian follicle

  1. granulosa cells produce increasing amounts of estrogens and some progesterone b. LH stimulates certain ovarian cells ( theca interna ) to secrete precursor molecules ( testosterone) used to produce estrogens
  1. Increasing amounts of estrogens during first week of cycle thickens the glandular endometrium of the uterus ( proliferative phase ). a. developing follicle completes maturation b. by 14th^ day, follicle appears on surface of ovary as a blisterlike bulge c. follicular fluid accumulates rapidly
  2. As follicle matures, estrogens inhibit release of LH ( allow anterior pituitary to store it ); make anterior pituitary cells more sensitive to action of GnRH a. near 14 th day, anterior pituitary cells finally respond to the pulses of GnRH and release stored LH – lasts about 36 hours
  1. this weakens and ruptures the bulging follicular wall – ovulation occurs
  1. Following ovulation, remnants of follicle and theca interna within ovary change rapidly. a. follicular space fills with blood and eventually forms a corpus luteum
  2. Corpus luteum cells secrete abundant progesterone and estrogens during second half of cycle. a. progesterone causes endometrium to become more vascular and glandular 1) uterine glands secrete more glycogen and lipids ( secretory phase )
  3. High levels of progesterone and estrogens inhibit the release of LH and FSH. a. no other follicles are stimulated to develop while corpus luteum is active b. if oocyte is not fertilized, corpus luteum begins to degenerate about 24 th day 1) remnant of corpus lutem is called a corpus albicans
  4. Without a corpus luteum functioning, concentrations of estrogens and progesterone decline rapidly, and in response, endometrial blood vessels constrict. a. endometrial tissues soon disintegrate and slough off b. blood escapes from damaged capillaries, creating a flow of blood and cellular debris, which passes through the vagina as the menstrual flow ( menses ) 1) flow usually begins about 28th^ day and continues 3 – 5 days while estrogen concentrations are low C. Menopause
  5. Reproductive cycles cease during the late forties or early fifties.
  6. Aging of ovaries is the cause. 22.12 MAMMARY GLANDS A. Location of the Glands Figure 22.
  7. Located in subcutaneous tissues of anterior thorax within the breasts.
  8. A nipple is located near tip of each breast. Surrounded by circular area of pigmented skin called the areola.

B. Structure of the Glands

  1. Composed of 15 – 20 irregularly shaped lobes.
  2. Each lobe contains glands ( alveolar glands ) and a duct ( lactiferous duct ) that leads to the nipple and opens to the outside. a. lobes are separated by dense connective and adipose tissues b. suspensory ligaments help support the breast’s weight C. Development of the Breasts
  3. Ovarian hormones stimulate development during puberty. 22.13 BIRTH CONTROL Table 22.
  • voluntary regulation of the number of offspring produced and the time of conception A. Coitus Interruptus
  1. Withdrawing the penis from the penis before ejaculation, preventing entry of sperm cells into female reproductive tract. a. some semen containing sperm cells may reach vagina prior to ejaculation B. Rhythm Method
  2. Requires abstinence from sexual intercourse a few days before and after ovulation. a. correctly identifying infertile times is difficult C. Mechanical Barriers
  3. Prevent sperm cells from entering female reproductive tract during sexual intercourse. a. condom b. female condom c. diaphragm d. cervical cap D. Chemical Barriers
  4. Include creams, foams, and jellies that have spermicidal properties. E. Combined Hormone Contraceptives
  5. Employ estrogen and progestin in combination to prevent pregnancy. F. Injectable Contraception
  6. Injection of Depo-Provera protects against pregnancy for 3 months. a. prevents maturation and release of a secondary oocyte G. Intrauterine Devices
  7. Small, solid object placed in the uterine cavity. a. interferes with implantation H. Surgical Methods
  8. Male or female is sterilized. a. vasectomy in males b. tubal ligation in females 22.14 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES Table 22.