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• ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
BIDEL, BULIK, STANLEY
CHAPTER 1:
HISTORICAL AND
MODERN PERSPECTIVE
- The physical, cognitive, and behavioral symptoms may represent common mental health problems.
- It can be considered as abnormal because most people do not want to take their life, and they sleep more than 4 hours a night.
- Although often unrecognized, psychological disorders exist in substantial numbers of people across all ages, races, ethnic groups, cultures, and in both sexes.
- Furthermore, they cause great suffering and impair academic, occupational, and social functioning.
- Abnormal behavior must always be considered in context normal feelings, such as grief, can be mistaken for illness, a person's cultural background may affect behavior, and a person's age may affect his or her symptoms NORMAL VS. ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR ➢ Put simply, abnormal means “away from normal,” but that is a circular definition. By this standard, normal becomes the statistical average and any deviation becomes “abnormal.” ➢ For abnormal psychology, defining abnormal behavior as merely being away from normal assumes that deviations on both sides of average are negative and in need of alteration or intervention.
IS BEING DIFFERENT ABNORMAL?
- Yao Ming is 7 feet 5 inches tall and weighs 295 pounds—far above average in both height and weight. However, his deviant stature does not affect him negatively. To the contrary, he was a successful and highly paid basketball player in the National Basketball Association.
- Mariah Carey has an abnormal vocal range—she is one of a few singers whose voice spans five octaves. Because of her different ability, she has sold millions of CDs.
- Professor Stephen Hawking, one of the world’s most brilliant scientists, has an intellectual capacity that exceeds that of virtually everyone else, yet he writes best- selling and popular works about theoretical physics and the universe. He does this despite suffering from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease), a debilitating and progressive neurological disease.
- Yao Ming, Mariah Carey, and Stephen Hawking differ from most people (in height, vocal range, and intelligence, respectively). However, these differences are not abnormalities and have resulted in positive contributions to society.
- In summary, being different is not the same as being psychologically abnormal IS BEHAVING DEVIANTLY (DIFFERENTLY) ABNORMAL?
- When the definition of abnormal behavior broadens from simply being different to behaving differently, we often use the term deviance. Deviant behaviors differ from prevailing societal standards.
- The same behavior, outrageous and different in 1964 but tame by today’s standards, illustrates an important point, deviant behavior violates societal and cultural norms, but those norms are always changing.
- Understanding behavior within a specific context is known as goodness of fit (Chess & Thomas, 1991).
- Simply put, a behavior can be problematic or not problematic depending on the environment in which it occurs. Some people change an environment to accommodate a behavior in the same way that buildings are modified to assure accessibility by everyone.
- When we attempt to understand behavior, it is critical to consider the context in which the behavior occurs. Group Expectations ➢ The expectations of family, friends, neighborhood, and culture are consistent and pervasive influences on why people act the way they do. ➢ Sometimes the standards of one group are at odds with those of another group. Adolescents, for example, often deliberately behave very differently than their parents do (they violate expected standards or norms) as a result of their need to individuate (separate) from their parents and be part of their peer group. ➢ In this instance, deviation from the norms of one group involves conformity to those of another. Like family norms, cultural traditions and practices also affect behavior in many ways. Culture ➢ Culture affects an individual’s behavior but also is reciprocally changed by the behaviors of its members (Tseng, 2003). ➢ We often behave in ways that reflect the values of the culture in which we were raised. For example, in some cultures, children are expected to be “seen and not heard” whereas in other cultures, children are encouraged to freely express themselves. ➢ Culture-bound syndrome is a term that originally described abnormal behaviors that were specific to a particular location or group (Yap, 1967); however, we now know that some of these behavioral patterns extend across ethnic groups and geographic areas. Development and Maturity ➢ Another important context that must be taken into account when considering behavioral abnormality is age. ➢ As a child matures (physically, mentally, and emotionally), behaviors previously considered developmentally appropriate and therefore normal can become abnormal. Eccentricity ➢ Eccentric behavior may violate societal norms but is not always negative or harmful to others
a. Socioeconomic status (SES) b. Downward drift c. Developmental trajectory- the idea that common symptoms of a disorder may vary depending on a person’s age. d. Trephination- the process in which a circular instrument was used to cut away sections of the skull, possibly in an attempt to release demons from the brain. CONCEPT CHECK
- Being different, or behaving differently, does not necessarily mean that someone is suffering from a psychological disorder. Determining the presence of abnormal behavior requires evaluation of the behavior in terms of its developmental, cultural, and societal contexts.
- In addition to determining context, the definition of abnormal behavior requires that the behavior create emotional distress or functional impairment.
- The current diagnostic system uses a categorical approach to classification of abnormal behavior. However, psychological symptoms rarely fall into one neat category.
- Furthermore, it is often difficult to determine the boundary between normal feelings such as sadness and psychological disorders such as depression. In these instances, a dimensional approach may be more useful.
THE HISTORY OF ABBORMAL BEHAVIOR AND
ITS TREATMENT
Throughout history, certain behaviors have been recognized as abnormal—often the same ones we recognize today. However, the explanations for these abnormal behaviors have evolved, ranging from an imbalance of bodily fluids to possession by demons, genetic abnormalities, and traumatic learning experiences. Today, new technologies allow us to watch the brain as it processes sights, smells, and sounds; solves problems; and experiences emotions. As this knowledge has increased, some of the earlier ideas about abnormal behavior seem outlandish or quaint. ANCIENT THEORIES ➢ Ancient Egyptians believed that spirits controlled much of the environment as well as aspects of a person’s behavior. ➢ Even before the Egyptians, some cultures engaged in a practice called trephination, using a circular instrument to cut away sections of the skull. ➢ One interpretation of trephination is that it was a treatment for abnormal behaviors. Opening up the skull, it may have been thought, released the evil spirits that had assumed control of the person (Selling, 1940). ➢ This is only an assumption. Trephination might simply have been used to treat head wounds received in battles (Maher & Maher, 1985). Even today, we are not sure why ancient peoples practiced it. *Trephination involved making a hole in the skull. It may have been a way that ancient peoples tried to release evil spirits from the body of an afflicted person.
CLASSICAL GREEK AND ROMAN PERIODS
- The ancient Greeks believed that the gods controlled abnormal behavior and that defiance of the deities could result in mental illness.
- Around the thirteenth century BC, the physician Melampus of Pilus introduced an organic model of illness to explain psychological symptoms and provided treatment using plants and other natural substances.
- He prescribed root extract for “agitated uterine melancholia” and iron powder for “traumatic impotence” (Roccatagliata,
- Asclepius , best known as a Greek god, is now believed to have been an historical figure whose healing abilities were so widely respected that he was elevated to the status of a god. - Many temples were established throughout Greece to honor Asclepius, one of which was the first known sanctuary for mental disorders, offering biological (mandrake root and opium), physical (music, massage, drama), and psychological treatments (dream interpretation; Roccatagliata, 1997) - During this period, mental illnesses were considered to result from either traumatic experiences or an imbalance in fluids (such as blood) found within the body. These fluids were called humors. - Often considered the father of medicine, Hippocrates (460–377 BC) was the most famous Greek physician. He produced both a diagnostic classification system and a model by which to explain abnormal behavior. - Hippocrates identified common psychological symptoms such as hallucinations (hearing or seeing things not evident to others), delusions (beliefs with no basis in reality ), melancholia (severe sadness), and mania (heightened states of arousal that can result in frenzied activity). - He also introduced the term hysteria , now called conversion disorder. The term hysteria was used to describe patients who
- Avicenna considered depression to result from a mix of humors, and he believed that certain physical diseases were caused by emotional distress.
- He stressed the beneficial effects of music on emotional disturbance. His approach to mental illness foreshadowed what would take an additional 600 years to appear in Europe—humane treatment of the mentally ill THE MIDDLE AGES THROUGH THE RENAISSANCE ➢ In medieval Europe, demons were considered to be the source of all evil, preying on the “captive and outwitted minds of men” (Tertullian, in Sagan, 1996) ➢ There were many challenges (wars, plagues, social oppression, famine) to survival during the Middle Ages, and people often sought reasons for these challenges. ➢ Church officials interpreted negative behavior as the work of the devil or as witchcraft, even when other, less dramatic, explanations existed. As a result of the church’s powerful influence, witchcraft became a prominent theory to explain abnormal behavior. ➢ Over a 300-year period (1400s to 1700s), at least 200,000 people in Europe were accused of witchcraft and 100,000 were put to death, approximately 80 to 85% of whom were women (Clark, 1997) ➢ In fact, many of those accused probably suffered from psychological disorders (Zilboorg, 1939, cited in Clark, 1997). Once accused of being a witch, the person was tried and always found guilty. ➢ Thankfully, the Renaissance period brought new attitudes toward science and the church that challenged the reality of witches. ➢ Accusations of witchcraft were not limited to European countries. ➢ “Witches” were also executed in Massachusetts in the seventeenth century. However, as illustrated by today’s stories of alien abduction (see the feature “Examining the Evidence: Modern Witchcraft, Demons, and Alien Abductions”), beliefs in the supernatural/paranormal still exist in our modern world. ➢ During the Middle Ages, episodes of mass hysteria would sweep through large groups of people ➢ Those affected were convinced that they were afflicted or possessed by a demonic spirit (again, similar to beliefs regarding alien abduction). ➢ One of the first recorded cases (originating in Italy in the early thirteenth century) is known as tarantism , caused by the belief that the bite of a wolf spider (also known as a tarantula) would cause death unless a person engaged in joyous, frenetic dancing. ➢ Another form of mass madness was lycanthropy , in which individuals believed that they were possessed by wolves. The belief was so strong that those affected would act like a wolf, even to the point of believing that their bodies were covered in fur.
*** Mass hysteria** a situation in which a group of people share and sometimes even act upon a belief that is not based in fact (for example, tarantism and lycanthropy) ➢ There is a scientific basis for mass hysteria. Emotional contagion is defined as the automatic mimicry and synchronization of expressions, vocalizations, postures, and movements of one person by another. ➢ When these overt behaviors converge, emotions come together as well. These mimicking behaviors are not under voluntary control but nevertheless serve to influence behavior. *** Emotional contagion** the automatic mimicry and synchronization of expressions, vocalizations, postures, and movements of one person by another. ➢ Although many people may no longer believe that wolves or spider bites are responsible for abnormal behaviors, the process of emotional contagion remains a powerful influence on behavior (see the feature “Examining the Evidence: Modern- Day Mass Hysteria”) ➢ The Renaissance period (14th to 17th Century) marked a second time of enlightenment in the treatment of mental illnesses in Europe. ➢ Europe. Much of this transformation can be traced back to the Dutch physician Johann Weyer (1515–1588) and the Swiss physician Paracelsus (1493–1541). ➢ Weyer was the first physician to specialize in the treatment of mental illness , and Paracelsus refuted the idea that abnormal behaviors were linked to demonic possession ➢ Paracelsus b elieved that mental disorders could be hereditary and that some physical illnesses had a psychological origin ➢ These changing views toward mental illness altered treatment approaches as well. A movement that was genuinely concerned with providing help arose , and its goal was to separate those with mental illness from those who engaged in criminal behavior (Sussman, 1998). ➢ Beginning in the sixteenth century, people with mental illness were housed in asylums—separate facilities designed to isolate them from the general public.
Philippe Pinel, a French physician, released mental patients from their chains and advocated a more humane form of treatment. ❖ The Retreat was built on a hill, and although it contained a hidden ditch and a wall to ensure confinement, the barriers could not be seen from the buildings; this gave the illusion of a home rather than an institution. ❖ The work of both Pinel and Tuke heralded moral treatment , “ summed up in two words, kindness and occupation ” (W.A.F. Browne, 1837, cited in Geller & Morrissey, 2004). ❖ Moral treatment was quite comprehensive. In the United States, it included removal of the patient from the home and former associates as well as respectful and kind treatment that included “manual labor , religious services on Sunday , the establishment of regular habits and of self- contro l, and diversion of the mind from morbid trains of thought ” (Brigham, 1847, p. 1, cited in Luchins, 2001). ❖ Moral treatment in the United States is most commonly associated with Benjamin Rush (1745–1813) and Dorothea Dix (1802– 1887). Rush was a well-known physician at Pennsylvania Hospital and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. ❖ He limited his practice to mental illness, which he believed had its causes in the blood vessels of the brain (Farr, 1994). Although this theory was later disproved, Rush believed that the human mind was the most important area of study , and he became known as the father of American psychiatry (Haas, 1993) ❖ In the United States, perhaps no name is more closely associated with humane care than that of Dorothea Dix, the Boston schoolteacher who devoted her life to the plight of the mentally ill and the need for treatment reform Dorothea Dix of Massachusetts was a tireless reformer who brought the poor treatment of the mentally ill to public attention. ❖ Through her efforts, 32 institutions that included programs in psychiatric treatment, research, and education were established (Gold, 2005 ). Dix believed that asylums, correctly designed and operated, would allow for treatment and perhaps even cure. ❖ Although Dix brought the plight of the mentally ill to public attention, moral treatment alone did not cure most forms of mental illness. In fact, mental hospitals became associated with permanent institutionalization, custodial care, isolation, and very little hope.
❖ During the late 1700s in Europe, the treatment of mental disorders went beyond providing rest and humane care. ❖ The German physician Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815) hardly followed the conventional medical establishment. His academic thesis explored the clinical implications of astrology (McNally, 1999). ❖ Mesmer proposed that the body was a magnet and that using the physician’s body as a second magnet could achieve a cure for mental illnes s (Crabtree, 2000). Mesmer believed that a substance called animal magnetism existed within the body. ❖ When it flowed freely, the body was in a healthy state; however, when the flow of this energy force was impeded, disease resulted. The cure involved “magnetic passes” of the physician’s hands over the body (McNally, 1999). Mesmerism was roundly criticized by a committee of scientists and physicians that included Benjamin Franklin and the noted French chemist Antoine Lavoisier. o Animal magnetism a force that Mesmer believed flowed within the body and, when impeded, resulted in disease o Placebo effect a condition in which symptoms of illness diminish or disappear not because of any specific treatment but because the patient believes that a treatment is effective. ❖ A placebo can be in the form of pills with inert ingredients such as cornstarch. It can also be in the form of a therapist or physician who displays an attitude of caring about the patient. However, it is important to add that although placebos may change how patients feel, the effect is usually temporary. Placebos are not the same as actual treatment. ❖ A significant event for establishing a biological basis for some psychological disorders occurred in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Scientists discovered that syphilis (a sexually transmitted disease caused by a bacterium) led to the chronic condition called general paresis manifested as physical paralysis and mental illness and eventually death. ❖ The work of the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926) was another important chapter in the history of abnormal behavior. ❖ During medical school, Kraepelin attended lectures in the laboratory of Wilhelm Wundt , the founder of modern scientific psychology (Decker, 2004). He applied Wundt’s scientific methods to measure behavioral deviations, hoping to provide the theoretical foundations
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
✓ Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud (1856–
- was trained as a neurologist. His career in psychiatry began in France, where he worked with Charcot. After settling in Vienna, Freud published Studies in Hysteria in 1895 with Josef Breuer. ✓ He introduces psychoanalysis , a comprehensive theory that attempts to explain both normal and abnormal behavior. ✓ Freud believed that the roots of abnormal behavior were established in the first 5 years of life. Because they happened so early, he believed that the person would retain no conscious memory of them—yet the unconscious memories would exert a lifelong influence on behavior. ✓ Psychoanalytic theory has three important aspects: the structure of the mind, the strategies used to deal with threats to the stability of the mind , and the stages of psychosocial development crucial for the development of normal (or abnormal) behavior ✓ In psychoanalytic theory, the mind consists of three regions: the id, ego, and superego ✓ Basic instinctual drives and the source of psychic energy, called libido , are found in the id. ✓ Always seeking pleasure, the id is totally unconscious, so its urges and activities are outside our awareness ✓ Think of the id as a professional athlete— “I want a big salary; I want a signing bonus.” The ego develops when the id comes in contact with reality. Think of the ego as a sports agent who mediates between the id’s impulses (the athlete’s desires) and the demands and restrictions of reality (the owner’s contract offer). Rather than always seeking pleasure, the ego copes with reality, or as Freud put it, the ego obeys the reality principle. The ego has both conscious and unconscious components, so we are often aware of its actions. The third region of the mind is the superego. Similar to a conscience, the superego imposes moral restraint on the id’s impulses (particularly those of a sexual or an aggressive nature). Think of the superego as the team owner or the league commissioner who doles out monetary fines for breaking team or league rules. When moral rules are violated, the superego punishes with guilt feelings. Like the ego, the superego is partly conscious and partly unconscious and tries to manage or inhibit the id’s impulses. Because these three intrapsychic forces are constantly competing, there is ever-changing conflict, creating a dynamic, in this case, a psychodynamic system. ✓ Freud proposed that through the use of defense mechanisms, the mind’s negative or distressing thoughts and feelings were disguised to emerge to consciousness in a more acceptable form.
✓ Some defense mechanisms prevented the onset of abnormal behavior. Other defense mechanisms (such as regression) may result in abnormal or age-inappropriate behaviors. ✓ Almost as well known as the id, ego, and superego are Freud’s stages of psychosexual development ✓ According to the theory, each person passes through these stages between infancy and 5 years of age. How a child copes with each stage has important effects on psychological development ✓ The oral phase occurs during the 0- 18 months of life. Sucking and chewing are pleasurable experiences; aggressive impulses emerge after the development of teeth. The anal phase (from age 18 months to 3 years) coincides with toilet training. During this time, parents emphasize discipline and control issues, and power struggles develop. ✓ Aggressive impulses on the part of the child could lead to personality traits of negativism and stubbornness as well as the emergence of hostile, destructive, or sadistic behaviors. During the phallic phase (ages 3 to 5), psychosexual energy centers on the genital area and children derive pleasure from touching or rubbing the genitals. During this phase, children may develop romantic fantasies or attachments toward their opposite-sex parent. ✓ The two additional stages, the latency phase (the formant stage of psychosexual development when children are disinterested in the opposite sex) and the genital phase (the mature stage of psychosexual development), are considered to play a more limited role in abnormal behavior. ✓ In psychoanalytic theory, anxiety and depression are caused by negative experiences. Depending on the age at which the experience occurs, individuals become fixated (stalled) at a stage of psychosexual development. This leaves a psychological mark on unconscious. ✓ In psychoanalytic theory, even though the individual is unaware of the early experience, it still influences daily functioning. In short, the individual behaves psychologically at the stage of development when the fixation occurred. ✓ The goals of psychoanalysis, the treatment Freud developed, include insight , bringing the troubling material to consciousness, and catharsis, releasing psychic energy. ✓ Several techniques are used to achieve these goals. In free association , the person minimizes conscious control and without selection or censorship, tells the analyst everything that comes to mind, allowing the analyst to draw out information regarding unconscious conflicts. ✓ In dream analysis , individuals are encouraged to recall and recount their
✓ Watson believed that the only appropriate objects of scientific study were observable behaviors, not inner thoughts or feelings. ✓ This view, known as behaviorism, is based on principles that consider all behavior (normal or abnormal) to be learned as a result of experiences or interactions with the environment. ✓ Watson is most famous for his work with his student. Rosalie Rayner. In 1920, they published the case of Little Albert , which demonstrated that emotional responses such as fear could be acquired through classical conditioning. In this case, Little Albert’s fear of a white rat was established by pairing the white rat with a loud, aversive noise (Watson & Rayner, 1920). ✓ Unfortunately, Little Albert and his mother left Johns Hopkins soon after the experiments were completed and for many years, psychologists were unsure about his fate. We now know that Little Albert’s real name was Douglas Merritte, and unfortunately, he died in 1925 from a condition known as acquired hydrocephalus, the condition in which the cavities of the brain have an excess of cerebrospinal fluid. o John Watson introduced behaviorism, which in its strictest form asserts that all behavior is learned. With his student, Rosalie Rayner, he studied infants’ emotional responses, showing that emotions could be acquired by classical conditioning.
- The research of Pavlov, Watson, Rayner, and Jones constituted powerful demonstrations that behaviors (even abnormal behaviors) could be learned and unlearned using conditioning principles. This view of abnormal behavior is very different from psychoanalytic theory. Yet, as we shall see, both theories continue to exert significant influence on our current views of abnormal behavior. ETHICS AND RESPONSIBILITY
- Before beginning research with human subjects, particularly children, scientists must submit their proposed research to a committee usually known as a Human Subjects Committee or Institutional Review Board.
- This committee reviews the research plan to make sure that the research will not harm the potential participants. Research studies designed to demonstrate that a scientist can create a psychological disorder in someone, particularly a child, would not be permitted today.
CURRENT VIEWS OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
AND TREATMENT
First, scientific advances lead to new and more sophisticated approaches to understanding human behavior Research findings allow unsupported theories to be discarded and provide new hypotheses to be tested and evaluated. This is the core of a scientific approach to abnormal behavior. Scientists form hypotheses and conduct controlled experiments to determine whether their hypotheses are supported. If empirical evidence supports the hypotheses, then those theories continue. If the evidence does not provide support, the theory is discarded or changed, and the process begins again. Second, scientific discoveries in areas other than psychology may later provide insight into abnormal behavior. For example, the Human Genome Project is mapping all of the genetic material in the human body. As our understanding of this map develops, new techniques (see Chapter
- allow us to examine genetic abnormalities that may be associated with specific psychological disorders, such as schizophrenia and autism. Although not developed to study abnormal behavior, these technologies help us to identify brain areas that we now know are involved in specific emotions such as sadness or fear. These examples illustrate how, as science advances, newer insights replace older theories such as demonology. For the past 50 years, psychologists who study abnormal behavior have been trained in the scientist–practitioner model, meaning that when providing treatment, psychologists rely on the findings of research. In turn, when conducting research, the psychologist investigates topics that help to guide and improve psychological care. Psychologists who utilize this perspective have a unique advantage because their scientific training allows them to differentiate fact from opinion when evaluating new theories, new treatments, and new research findings. This perspective also allows psychologists to apply research findings in many different areas to develop more comprehensive models of abnormal behavior. Critically applying a scientific perspective to theories of etiology and examining the evidence behind proposed theories prevent us from adopting explanations that are without a firm scientific basis (such as witchcraft and demonology). The different findings have given rise to perspectives, known as models, that try to weave coherent explanations from the available clinical observations and research findings. These models consist of basic assumptions that provide a How does Freud’s theory of the development of abnormal behavior differ from that of Pavlov and Watson? Freud’s theories also placed a great deal of emphasis on sexual development. Freud believed that each of us must pass through a series of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturing during a particular stage, we may become stuck or fixated in that stage. Freud’s psychosexual model of development includes five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was widely known for describing the phenomenon now known as classical conditioning_._ In his famous 1890s experiment, he trained his dogs to salivate on command by associating the ringing of a bell with the delivery of food. As Pavlov’s work became known in the West, particularly through the writings of John B. Watson, the idea of conditioning as an automatic form of learning became a key concept in the development of behaviorism.
activity (thinking, feeling, and motor activity) and is related to many physical and mental disorders. ❖ Until recently, the activity of neurotransmitters in the brain had to be assessed indirectly from their presence in other parts of the body (blood or spinal fluid). However, it was always unclear how accurately chemicals in blood or spinal fluid really reflected neurotransmitter activity in the brain. ❖ Through advances in neuroscience, we now rely less on assumptions and indirect measures to understand the structure and function of the nervous system and its interaction with behavior. ❖ Imaging tests such as the CAT scan and MRI examine the morphology (structure) of the brain and are used to determine whether parts of the brain are structurally different in those with and without psychological disorders. ❖ For example, the brains of patients with Alzheimer’s disease have two structural abnormalities, plaques and tangles, which exist in greater number than among older people without Alzheimer’s disease. ❖ For other psychological disorders, the evidence is less definitive. ❖ In some disorders, such as post- traumatic stress disorder (PTSD, an anxiety disorder that occurs after a traumatic event), changes in the brain appear to be the result of, not the cause of, the disorder (Bellis, 2004). In other words, years of living with the disorder cause changes in the brain, a process sometimes known as biological scarring. ❖ In other instances, when compared to people with no disorder, the brains of people with schizophrenia show structural brain abnormalities that could have occurred before birth (Malla et al., 2002; Sallet et al., 2003; see Chapter 10). o neuron a nerve cell found throughout the body, including the brain o synapse a space between neurons o neurotransmitter a chemical substance that is released into the synapse and transmits information from one neuron to another o neuroscience the study of the structure and function of the nervous system and the interaction of that system and behavior o biological scarring the process by which years of living with a disorder cause changes in the brain ❖ Advanced neuroimaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI; see Chapter
- allow for mapping various areas of the brain and identifying brain areas
that might be associated with various disorders. ❖ Differences in brain functioning have been reported for adults with schizophrenia (Holmes et al., 2005), depression (Holmes et al., 2005; Milak et al.,2005), adults and children with anxiety disorders (Baxter et al., 1992; Bellis, 2004), eating disorders (van Kuyck et al., 2009), and many other psychiatric disorders. ❖ Although neuroscience data provide exciting new avenues for further research, it is still too soon to conclude that brain abnormalities cause psychological disorders. o First, not all studies that compare people with and without a disorder find differences in brain structure or function. Furthermore, even when differences are detected, the abnormalities are not always found in a second trial, meaning that the abnormalities are not consistent. o Second, to date, when differences exist, they are sometimes found in several different disorders. This means that whatever difference exists probably does not cause a specific disorder. Just like a fever that may be associated with many different physical illnesses, abnormal brain functioning may indicate that something is wrong, but not specifically what is wrong. o Third, in most instances, few data indicate that these structural or functional abnormalities existed before the disorder occurred (schizophrenia and autism may be exceptions). It is just as likely that some disorders, such as PTSD, may cause changes in brain functioning, if not necessarily brain structure. ❖ Over the next decade, continued research in these areas coupled with the development of even more sophisticated assessment devices and strategies may help clarify some of these issues. ❖ The field of behavioral genetics emerged with works by Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911) and his 1869 publication, Hereditary Genius o behavioral genetics the field of study that explores the role of genes and environment in the transmission of behavioral traits o viral infection theory the theory that during the prenatal period or shortly after birth, viral infections could cause some psychological disorders
