CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
INTIMACY AND COMMUNICATION IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of Master of Arts in
Psychology
by
Francesca Maria Guglielmi
December 2017
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CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE INTIMACY AND ..., Study notes of Communication
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CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
INTIMACY AND COMMUNICATION IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology by Francesca Maria Guglielmi December 2017
ii The thesis of Francesca Guglielmi is approved: Sara Berzenski, Ph.D. Date Scott W. Plunkett, Ph.D. Date Gary S. Katz, Ph.D., Chair Date California State University, Northridge
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to thank my committee members who supported my efforts in writing this thesis. To my chair, Dr. Gary Katz, To Dr. Sara Berzenski, To Dr. Scott Plunkett, Thank you for your continued feedback and encouragement throughout the writing process. Your dedication to students and their success is inspiring and only helped to further my interest and dedication to the study of psychology.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Signature Page ii Dedication iii Acknowledgment iv List of Tables vi Abstract vii CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of the Problem 3 Hypotheses 4 Assumptions 5 CHAPTER II – REVIEW OF LITERATURE 7 Developmental Theories and Emerging Adulthood 7 Gender and Communication 19 Development of Communication 20 Intimacy and Communication 22 CHAPTER III – METHODOLOGY 27 Procedure 27 Sample Description 27 Measures 28 CHAPTER IV – RESULTS 34 CHAPTER V – DISCUSSION 40 Discussion 40 Limitations 46 Implications 47 Conclusion 48 REFERENCES 50
vii
ABSTRACT
INTIMACY AND COMMUNICATION IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD
by Francesca Guglielmi Master of Arts in Psychology The purpose of this study was to examine how emerging adults perceive and think about intimacy and communication in their dating and romantic relationships. The theory of emerging adulthood posits that two of Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development— identity vs. role confusion and intimacy vs. isolation—overlap during emerging adulthood, when individuals delay adult responsibilities to explore and establish their identities and opportunities for intimacy. It was hypothesized that emerging adults facing the intimacy crisis would be more focused on intimacy on measures assessing the importance of intimacy to relationships when compared with individuals in the identity crisis. The way emerging adults view communication in relationships was also explored, specifically looking at how the importance of communication relates to an emerging adults views on intimacy. Gender and gender role were also examined to determine if men and women in the emerging adulthood stage have differing views of intimacy and communication. The results of the study suggested that the focus of individuals’ dating goals is significantly different when compared with whether they are more focused on establishing identity or intimacy in their lives. No significant relationships were found between emerging adults’ current psychosocial crises and the importance of intimacy
viii characteristics to their relationships or value they place on communication skills in relationships. Although no differences were found based on gender, the results indicated that gender role is correlated with the importance placed on characteristics of intimacy in relationships. An individual’s gender role also influenced the value placed on communication skills in a relationship, and a significant difference was found between those classified as androgynous and those with a masculine or undifferentiated gender role. Further research is needed to examine these findings within a larger, more generalizable sample.
intimacy in their relationships, preparing them for the adult responsibilities that await them (Arnett, 2000). Intimacy in this case does not refer solely to sexual relations, but to a person’s ability to connect and relate to another person both physically and emotionally on a deep, meaningful level (Arnett, 2000; Erikson, 1950). From a developmental perspective, relationships during emerging adulthood could represent a link between the relationships common in adolescence and the committed life-long relationships emerging adults are moving towards (Knight, 2014; Shulman & Connolly, 2013). In order to fulfill these identity and intimacy related developmental tasks, emerging adults rely on communication to better understand themselves and to establish and engage in intimate relationships (Veksler & Meyer, 2014). Although communication plays an important role in the exploration of intimacy, and relational communication is a factor in the romantic and sexual relationships of emerging adults, it seems that men and women may view and practice communication differently within their relationships (Kunkel & Burleson, 1999; Vasyura, 2008). Tannen (1990) suggests that men and women have different understandings of the world—men focus more on status, while women focus on connections—and communicate with each other according to those understandings. Although Tannen claims that men and women have a different understanding of the world, it is likely that these communication differences between men and women exist as a result of the way the two sexes are socialized as children and the societal expectations they encounter, and not just as a result of biology (Halim, Ruble, & Amodio, 2011; Maccoby, 2000). According to prior research, emerging adults consider relational communication to be important to the establishment and maintenance of interpersonal relationships,
particularly in the case of friends with benefits (FWB) type relationships (Bisson & Levine, 2009; Hughes, Morrison, & Asada, 2005). A FWB relationship is typically seen as a non-romantic relationship between friends that involves sexual behaviors (Bisson & Levine, 2009). Emerging adults have acknowledged rules of communication, such as honesty and openness, as important to the maintenance of FWB relationships (Weaver, MacKeigan, & MacDonald, 2011), and it is possible that these same ideas apply to more committed romantic relationships as well. Based on the existing literature, communication and intimacy in relationships are intertwined; however, many recent studies focus on emerging adults and communication via social media and other forms of electronic communication, which are not the focus of this particular study. Statement of the Problem and Purpose The objectives of this study are to assess the extent to which the Eriksonian stages of identity and intimacy reflect the actual goals and challenges faced by today’s emerging adults. According to Arnett’s theory of emerging adulthood, the primary tasks of this life stage are to solidify one’s identity and seek out intimate relationships, preparing individuals to accept the responsibilities of adulthood (Arnett, 2004). Communication plays a pivotal role as emerging adults attempt to solidify their identities, as they rely on it to interact with the world and people around them (Veksler & Meyer, 2014). Similarly, individuals rely on interpersonal communication to establish and maintain intimate relationships, which are influenced by the way people communicate in and about them (Derlega, 1984). Therefore, it follows that emerging adults also rely on communication as they solidify their identities and build intimate relationships. It is largely understood by emerging adults that communication is essential to
- Emerging adults in the intimacy vs. isolation crisis will view intimacy as more important to relationships than will emerging adults in the identity vs. role confusion crisis, reflecting the increased importance placed on intimacy and commitment during the psychosocial stage of intimacy. 3a. Emerging adults in the intimacy vs. isolation crisis will value communication more highly than will those in the identity crisis. 3 b. Emerging adults who view intimacy as more important, regardless of psychosocial crisis, should also place increased value on communication.
- Female emerging adults will view intimacy as more important in their relationships than will male emerging adults. 5a. Emerging adults with a more feminine gender role will view intimacy as more important in their relationships than will those with a more masculine gender role. 5 b. Those with a feminine gender role will also value communication skills more highly in their relationships than those with a masculine gender role. Assumptions This research study was created based upon certain assumptions. It was assumed that participants would be able to read, understand, and follow the directions presented in the survey. This assumption was made because the survey is written in English and the participants are currently attending a university where the primary language is English. It was also assumed that, since the survey is anonymous, participants would respond to all survey questions honestly. Next, it was also assumed that participants would respond in ways different from each other since they will have had different life experiences and be completing the survey independently of one another. It was assumed that all of the
measures utilized were appropriate for the emerging adult population in the study because they had been used, or created for use, with emerging adults in previous research. And finally, it was assumed that no errors occurred during data entry or analyses.
individual continues in his or her developmental trajectory (Erikson, 1950 ). This study will focus on Erikson and his psychosocial stages. Erikson’s Theory Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development focused on crises during developmental stages, which he viewed as central to an individual’s ability to advance from one stage to the next (Erikson, 1950). Erikson’s stages followed a sequence, with the resolution of each crisis propelling the individual into the next stage of life. Even though Erikson did not assign exact ages to his stages, he did intend for them to correspond with specific segments of the life span, which, when connected, represent the whole life cycle (Levinson, 1986). In other words, the psychosocial stages of development focused more on the personal crises individuals face than the biological changes or aging they may be undergoing. Erikson described eight developmental crises across the life span, which he termed the Eight Ages of Man (Erikson, 1950). The first stage of Erikson’s theory is basic trust vs. basic mistrust, where infants learn to trust that their mothers or care providers will satisfy their needs for nourishment and care, and always return when out of sight; the child can also develop mistrust about being cared for by others (see Table 1). The next early childhood stage, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, centers on the child’s ability and desire to control their life and be self- sufficient in a variety of activities. Shame and doubt can occur when the child does not trust their own abilities and feels incapable of self-sufficiency. Building on this autonomy, the child becomes more adventurous and eager to undertake more adult-like activities, demonstrating the next stage: initiative vs. guilt. Guilt results when the child does not desire to take on more adult-like responsibilities or adhere to the internalized
rules and demands set by the parents. As the child moves into late childhood, the focus shifts to the next stage of industry vs. inferiority, where children eagerly learn competence and productivity while mastering skills. Children can also feel inferior if they feel unable to accomplish things as well as they wished. Adolescence is marked by the crisis of identity vs. role confusion, where individuals develop and substantiate their identities, or remain indecisive about the roles they should undertake. Following the establishment of an identity, young adults seek out companionship and intimate relationships, yet fear of rejection can result in isolation for the individual navigating the crisis of intimacy vs. isolation. Middle adulthood is marked by generativity vs. stagnation, which can be described as a need to contribute and provide for the next generation, but failing to do so can result in stagnation for the adult. The final stage of Erikson’s theory is ego integrity vs. despair, and applies to those in late adulthood. This stage is a time where older adults may accept their lives for what they were and are, and understand the life cycle, or they fall into despair, however, as they fear death and look back on their lives with longing and regret. Although Erikson’s theory covers the entire life span, this thesis will focus on only two stages of human development: identity vs. role confusion and intimacy vs. isolation, as the intertwining of these two stages forms part of the foundation for a theory of emerging adulthood. These two Eriksonian crises generally map onto adolescence and young adulthood, which overlap in emerging adulthood.
childhood identifications with a socially age-appropriate identity (Erikson, 1968). Unlike the previous developmental stages that are designated largely by the changes an individual is undergoing (e.g., physical growth, puberty), late-adolescent development is largely dependent on what an individual does—not what is happening to the individual. In other words, the first five of Erikson’s stages focus on physical development, and how the body is evolving. Once the hormonal changes of puberty subside, however, the focus shifts to what an individual does to resolve the crisis at hand and continue to the next stage (Erikson, 1968; Scheck, 2005). It is this idea that allows the adolescent to alter and determine their identity in order to resolve the crisis Erikson defined at this stage. This crisis, however, is not always resolved in a designated amount of time, and Erikson (1950, 1968) allowed for a prolonged adolescence, wherein individuals are allowed by society to find their niche through a freedom to explore different roles. It is during this period, which Erikson (1950, 1968) referred to as the psychosocial moratorium, that the individual resolves their identity crisis into an identity that fits both the individual and the society. According to Erikson (1968), this psychosocial moratorium describes a period of time where an individual delays future commitments because they feel unready to partake in these commitments just yet. Individuals in psychosocial moratorium are considered to be in crisis, yet are actively trying to reconcile their choices by reevaluating and reformatting their beliefs (Erikson, 1950, 1968; Marcia, 1966). In other words, the psychosocial moratorium of prolonged adolescence refers to “a delay of adult commitments” while society permits the youth to play and explore various commitments before ultimately choosing the ones that fit best (Erikson, 1968, p. 157). The ability to make these adult commitments involves a compromise between society’s demands,
parents’ wishes, and the individual’s own abilities (Marcia, 1966). Essentially, Erikson (1950, 1968) suggests that not all adolescents are able to rectify their respective crises during a prescribed period; some individuals require additional time and exploration in order to develop their identities and progress towards the more adult commitments. According to Erikson (1950), once adolescents have formed a strong identity, they are ready to take on the challenges that will come with the next developmental period. Young adulthood****. Once the crisis of identity vs. role confusion has been resolved, the individual then faces the crisis of intimacy vs. isolation, which is typically ascribed to the period of young adulthood (Erikson, 1950). The intimacy vs. isolation crisis focuses on the young adult’s search for companionship through both friendship and love. In terms of love and romantic relations, intimacy here does not refer to sex, but to a person’s ability to connect and relate to another individual on a deep, meaningful level (Erikson, 1950). At this stage, young adults are eager to combine their identities with that of another, and strive to succeed in their abilities to commit to another person and to follow through on such commitments (Erikson, 1950). If, however, they did not establish a firm identity in a resolution of the previous crisis, their capacity for intimacy is diminished (Erikson, 1950). A fear of rejection and of commitment can cause an individual to retreat into isolation (Erikson, 1950). The purpose of this stage is for the individual to seek out those with whom to form and nurture intimate bonds, eventually leading to the creation of the intimate relationship with a life partner (Erikson, 1950). It is these intimate relationships that then set the foundation for the remainder of the life course (Erikson, 1968; Scheck, 2005).