Business Economics Fundamentals, Study notes of Business Economics

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iS'tï'tA'

wOHhk fm<fmd;

jHdmdr wd¾Ól úμdj yd

jHdmdr uQ,H uQ,O¾u

Y%S ,xld iy;sl,;a l<ukdlrK .KldêldÍ wdh;kh

ii

Y%S ,xld iy;sl,;a l<ukdlrK .KldêldÍ wdh;kh wdpd¾h f,iag¾ fÊïia mSßia udj;g ^l<ska älauka mdr& wxl 01" fnf;iavd fmfoi fld<U 05'

Wmqgd.ekSu ;ykï' Y%S ,xld iy;sl,;a l<ukdlrK .KldêldÍ wdh;kfha mQ¾j wkque;shlska f;drj fuu fm< fmdf;ys lsisÿ fldgila kej; bÈßm;a lsÍu" fjk;a udOHhl ;ekam;a lsÍu" bf,lafg%dksl" hdka;%s;" Pdhdmsgm;a lsÍu" msgm;a lr.ekSu fyda fjk;a l=uk fyda l%uhlg Wmqgd .ekSu iïmQ¾Kfhkau ;ykï fõ'

Y%S ,xld iy;sl,;a l<ukdlrK .KldêldÍ wdh;kh

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Y%S ,xld iy;sl,;a l<ukdlrK .KldêldÍ wdh;kh

01 jk mßÉfþoh wd¾Ól úoHdj ye¢kaùu 01 - 20

02 jk mßÉfþoh b,a¨u" iemhqu yd iu;=,s; ñ, 21 - 37

03 jk mßÉfþoh kuH;d ixl,amh 38 - 46

04 jk mßÉfþoh jHdmdßl wdh;k ms<sn| kHdh ksIamdokh yd msßjeh 47 - 63

05 jk mßÉfþoh fj<|m, jHqyhka mQ¾K ;rÕh yd taldêldrh 64 - 90

06 jk mßÉfþoh fj<|m, jHqyhka tAldêldÍ ;rÕh yd l;smhdêldrh 91 - 102

07 jk mßÉfþoh cd;sl wdodhï .sKqïlrKh 103 - 130

08 jk mßÉfþoh rdcH wruqKq m%;sm;a;s yd m%;sm;a;s WmlrK 131 - 151

09 jk mßÉfþoh wka;¾cd;sl fj<odu 152 - 162

10 jk mßÉfþoh f.jqï fYaIh yd úksuh wkqmd;sl 163 - 177

11 jk mßÉfþoh uQ,H l<ukdlrK ld©Ndrh yd úIh m;h 178 - 188

12 jk mßÉfþoh uQ,H moaO;sh iy fj<|m<j,a 189 - 198

13 jk mßÉfþoh uqof,a ld, w.h 199 - 213

14 jk mßÉfþoh wjodkï yd m%;s,dN uQ,sl uQ,Ou_ 214 - 235

v

Y%S ,xld iy;sl,;a l<ukdlrK .KldêldÍ wdh;kh

^w& iïm;a ysÕlu

wd¾Ól úoHdfõ w;sYh uq,sl ixl,amhla jkqfha iïm;a ysÕluhs' ñksia jqjukd fyda wdYdjka wiSñ; jqj;a" fuu wdYdjka fyda jqjukd ;Dma;su;a lsßug we;s iïm;a iSñ;h'

fuh wd¾Ól m%Yakj, mokuhs' ñksia jqjukd hkafkka woyia lrkafka wdydr" we÷ï iy wm%udK yd úúOdldr NdKav yd fiajd ,nd .eksug we;s wNsm%dhhs' iEu

mdßfNda.slhl=gu jeä jeäfhka ,nd .eksug wjYH jqj;a" Tyqf.a fkdfhla jqjukd ;Dma;su;a lsßug Tyqg ;sfnk wdodhu iSñ; fõ' ksIamdolhl= iïnkaOj ndOlh jkqfha Tyqf.a iSñ; m%d.aOkhhs' rchg we;s ndOlh jkqfha tl;= lr .; yels iSñ; nÿ wdodhuhs' ´kEu iudchl uq,sl wd¾Ól m%Yakh kï" Tjqkg ksIamdokh i|yd we;s iSñ; iïm;aj,ska wiSñ; jqjukd ^NdKav yd fiajd i|yd& ;Dma;su;a lrkafka flfiao hkakhs' uydpd¾h frdìkaia ^1932& wd¾Ól úoHdj ks¾jpkh lrkq ,enqfõ “ úl,am Ndú; iys; ysÕ iïm;a yd ñksia jqjukd w;r mj;sk iïnkaO;djfhaÈ ñksia yeisßu wOHhkh flfrk úoHdjla ” f,isks'

wd¾Ól úoHdfõÈ iïm;a hkak ksIamdok idOl f,i kï flf¾' tajd N+ñh" Y%uh" m%d.aOkh yd jHjidh fõ' wmf.a jqjukd ;Dma;su;a lsßug wjYH NdKav ksIamdokh lsßu i|yd iïm;a Wmfhda.s lr .ks' N+ñh hkq fNda. jeúh yels ìï yd f.dvke.s,s ;eksh yels ìïh' mDÒõ wNHka;rfha msysgd ;sfnk f,day yd LKsc iïm;ao" c,h yd uqyqÿ iïm;ao fuhg we;=<;a fõ' iajNdj O¾ufha odhdohka hkqfjka fuh fláfhka woyia lrhs' ksIamdok ls%hdj,sfhaÈ fhdod .; yels yia; yd yia; fkdjk l%u udkisl m%h;akhla f,i Y%uh ks¾jpkh l< yel' m%d.aOkh hkq ksIamdokh i|yd wdOdr lrkq ,nk msßh; yd hka;% jeks ñksid idok ,o fN!;sl iïm;ah' iudchsh m%d.aOkhka jk uydud¾." ÿïßh ud¾." fmdÿ WoHdk yd jdßud¾. lghq;=o fuhg wh;ah' jHjidhl;ajh hkq jHjidhlhl=f.a l=i,;djhka yd yelshdjka fõ' jHjidhlhd hkq ls%hdj,sfha iïnkaO ù mj;sk wjodkï j,g uqyqK foïka , wm ±kgu;a l:dlr we;s N+ñh" Y%uh yd m%d.aOkh hk idOl wjYH ñY%Kh fhdod .ksñka NdKav yd fiajd ksIamdokh ioyd uq,a msÍï yd m%h;akhka orkafkls.

^wd& f;aßu wd¾Ól úoHdfõ fofjks jeo.;a ixl,amh jkqfha f;aßuhs' iïm;aj, ys.lu muKla fkdj tajdfha úl,am Ndú;djkao fõ' mdßfNda.slhl=f.a wdodhu iSñ; fõ' Tyqf.a tu iSñ; wdodhñka ñ,È .; hq;= NdKav yd / fyda fiajd Tyq f;dard .; hq;=h' tfiau bvï ysñhl=g Tyqf.a N+ñh j.d lsßug fyda f.dvke.s,a,la bÈ lsßug fyda tu foflysu ñY%Khlg fhdod .; yels ksid Tyq f;aßula l< hq;=h' jHdmdßlhl= Tyqf.a iSñ;

uqo,a m%d.aOkfhka ksIamdokh l< hq;af;a l=ulao hkak ;SrKh l< hq;=h' mdie,la" fyda frday,la bÈ lsßu jYfhka iSñ; wdodhu úúO wruqKq ioyd fnod yeßh hq;af;a flfiao hkak rchla ;SrKh l< hq;=h' wd¾Ól úoHdj m<uqj iïm;a ysÕlu yÿkd.kakd w;r bka miq úúOdldr wjYH;d w;r iïm;a fnod yeßh hq;af;a flfiao hkak wOHhkh lrhs' th f;aßfï yrh yd iajNdjh fõ' fï wdldrfhka iEu f;aßulau wjidkfha msßjehlg fya;= fõ'

^we& wdjiaÓl msßjeh

±kgu;a meyeÈ,s lr we;s wdldrhg ´kEu f;dard .eksula ksid mj;akd ;;aajh wjidkfha msßjehlg ^f;dard .eksfï moku u; fhdod .kakd iïm;aj, w.h& fya;= fõ' fuys fjkiajk iajNdjh wkqj" hï f;aßula isÿ lsßfuka we;s jk msßjehg tu wruqK i|yd fhdod .;a iïm;a hï fjk;a wruqKlg fhdod .eksfuka Wmhd .; yelsj ;snQ m%;s,dN we;=,;a fõ' iïm;a lem lsßfï oDIaÀfldaKfhka ´kEu f;dard .eksula lem lsßu u; r|d mj;sk ksid fuu ;;a;ajh we;s fõ' bvï ysñhl= Tyqf.a bvu f.dvke.s,a,la bÈ lsßu i|yd f;dard .; fyd;a" tu bvu j.d lsßug ;nd .eksug yd Wmhd .; yelsj ;snq m%;s,dNh Tyqg lem lsßug fyda w;a yeßug isÿ fõ' j.d lsßfuka Wmhd .eksug yelshdj ;snq m%;s,dNh bvfuys f.dvke.s,a,la bÈ lsßu f;dard .eksfuka we;s jq „ wdjiaÓl msßjehhs' ‟ tfiau rglg fudag¾ r: fyda g%elag¾ ksIamdokfhaÈ f;aßula we;s úgl g%elag¾ ksIamdokh f;dard .; fyd;a tu g%elag¾ fjkqjg fudag¾ r: ksIamdokh lsßfï yelshdj w;a yeßu isÿ lrhs' fuu ksid g%elag¾j, uQ¾; msßjeh jkafka taksid w;a yeßug isÿjQ fudag¾ r: m%udKhhs' fun÷ msßjehj,a ;ks mdßfNda.slhkg yd ksIamdolhkago mj;s' WodyrK jYfhka mdßfNda.slhl= wjkay,lska fNdackhla ,nd .eksfuka Tyqg rx. Yd,djlg hdu w;a yeßug isÿ úh yel' tfiau ksIamdolhl= mj;akd iïm;aj,ska fïi ksIamdokh jeä lsßug ;SrKh l< fyd;a Tyq mqgq ksIamdokh lsßfï yelshdj lem lsßug isÿ úh yel' tu ksid wdjiaÓl msßjeh hkq tu ld¾hh isÿ lsßu fjkqjg fjk;a ld¾hhla / ld¾hhka isÿ lsßu w;ayeßug isÿ úfuka w;ayerekq m%;s,dNh fõ' fuh jeo.;a wd¾Ól ixl,amhls' ksIamdok ;SrKj, wd¾Ól j,x.=;djh ie<lSfïÈ ksIamdok idOlj, wd¾Ól msßjeh ueksfï moku fuh imhk ksid fuh jeo.;a wd¾Ól ixl,amhls' wfkla w;g jd;fha fyda uqyqÿ c,fha w;s nyq,;djh ksid tajdfha ysÕ iemhqula ke;' idudkHfhka ñksiqka fïjd ,nd .eksu i|yd f.úula isÿ fkdlrhs' fïjd fkdñ, NdKav f,i y÷kajk w;r wdjiaÓl msßjeh Y+kH fõ' ´kEu iïm;la iSñ; jk úg thg wd¾Ól jákdlula fyda yqjudre jákdlula we;s fõ' mdßfNda.slhka Tjqkg jqjukd NdKav fyda fiajd ,nd .eksug ñ,la f.úug iQodkïh' tfiau ksIamdolhska Tjqkg NdKav ksIamdokhg wjYH jk ksIamdok idOl ,nd .eksu i|yd ñ,la f.úh hq;=h'

2'0 ksIamdok yelshd jl%

fmkakqï lrhs' fï ksid ksIamdok yelshd jl%hg msg;ska fmkakqï lrk lsisu ,laIHhlg ^Wod : Y ,laIHh& mj;akd iïm;a yd ;dlaIKfhka ,Õd úh fkdyel' wfkla w;g fudag¾ r: Ca tall m%udKhla yd g%elag¾ Ta tall m%udKhl ixfhda.h igyka lr we;s X ,laIHh ksIamdok yelshd udhsï jl%fha we;=,;ska msysgd we;' kuq;a tu n, m%foaYfha ,laIHfhka NdKav folskau ksmoúh yels Wmßu m%udKh fkdimhhs' tuksid , X ,laIHh iïm;a kdia;s lsßula isÿ lrk ksIamdokhla fyda tfia;a ke;akï wd¾Ólfha wld¾hlaIu ksIamdok ,laIHHla úh yel' tu ,laIHfhaÈ , iSñ; iïm;a ld¾hlaIu f,i fhdod fkd.ks'

2'4 iïm;a ysÕlu ksid iEu fohlau ,nd .; fkdyels neúka l=ula ksmoúh hq;=o hkak ;SrKh lsßug ksIamdok yelshd udhsï jl%h fhdod .; yelsh' fï wkqj" m<uqj i,ld n,k hïlsis NdKavhla Wod : „X NdKavh ‟ yd wfkla j¾.h wd¾Ólhg ksmoúh yels ish¿u wfkl=;a NdKav ms<sìUq lsßu i|yd jYfhka NdKav j¾. folla mokï lr .ksñka ksIamdok yelshd udhsï jl%h we¢h yel' w;HjYH NdKav fyda fiajdj,ska wjYH m%udKh Wjÿfrys fkdfy<d wd¾Ólhg ksmoúh yels w;HjYH fkdjk NdKav fyda fiajd m%udKh ;SrKh lsßu i|yd fuu jl%h Wmfhda.s lr .ks'

2'5 tfiau ksIamdok yelshd jl%h wdjiaÓl msßjeho meyeÈ,s lrhs' wd¾Ólhlg g%elag¾ jeä m%udKhla wjYH jqjfyd;a tu wjYH;djh imqrd ,sh yelafla fudag¾ ld¾ ksuejqu wvq lsßfuka muKls' fï wdldrhg ±kgu;a idlÉPd lr we;s wd¾Ól úoHdfõ uq,sl ixl,am ;=k meyeÈ,s lsßug ksIdmok yelshd jl%h fhdod .; yelsh'

2'6 ksIamdok yelshd jl%fha ú;ekaúu

mj;akd iïm;aj, m%udKfha jeäúula ksid fyda ;dlaIKsl ÈhqKqjla we;s úu ksid fyda ksIamdok yelshd udhsï jl%h ol=Kg ú;eka fõ' f;,a" iajNdúl .Eia fyda LKsc iïm;a jeks iajNdúl iïm;a fidhd .eksu ksid" iïm;a jeäúfuka fyda Wod : f,i ksIamdok ls%hdj,sh iajhxls%h lsßfuka thg wjYH jk Y%u meh wvq úu jeks ;dlaIKsl ÈhqKqj we;s úfuka fuh isÿ úh yelsh'

 ksIamdok yelshd jl%h ol=Kg ú;eka jqjfyd;a thska fmkakqï lrkafka l,ska ksIamdokh l,dg jvd jeä NdKav yd fiajd m%udKhla rglg ksIamdokh lsßfï fyd|

yelshdjla we;s njhs' fuh ienE Ôú;fha wjia:djkaj,È isÿ jq úg wd¾Ól j¾Okh f,i i,lhs' ^rEm igyk 2&  rgl ksIamdok yelshd jl%h Wod : f,i È.= bfvdarhla ksid lDIsld¾ñl wxYfha ksIamdok yelshd m%udKfha úYd, wvqúula ùu fyda n,h W;amdokh wvq úu jeks fya;= ksid jug ú;eka jqjfyd;a" thska fmkakqï lrkafka wd¾Ólhlg fmr ksmojQ ;rï ksIamdokh l< fkdyels njhs' ck.ykfha iS>% wvq úu ksid fyda iajNdúl iïm;a j, kdia;sh ksid fyda iajNdúl wdmodjlska há;, myiqlïj,g ydks úu fuhg fya;= úh yel' ^rem igyk 2&

rem igyk 2 : ksIamdok yelshd jl%fha ú;ekaúu

3'0 iudchla uqyqK fok uq,sl wd¾Ól m%Yak

iEu iudchlau iSñ; iïm;aj,ska ;Dma;su;a úh hq;= tfy;a mj;akd wiSñ; jqjukd hk m%Yakhg uqyqK fohs' ta ksid iEu iudchlau my; uq,sl wd¾Ól m%Yak ;=kg ms<s;=re fiúh hq;=h'

^w& l=uk NdKavhla fyda fiajdjla ksmoúh hq;=o@ ^wd& tu NdKavh fyda fiajdj flfia ksmoúh hq;=o@ ^b& fuu NdKavh fyda fiajdj ksIamdokh l< hq;af;a ld i|ydo@ hkakhs'

C 2

C 1

C 3

T 3 T 1

T 2

Z

X

Y

fudag¾ r: m%udKh

g%elag¾ m%udKh

fj<|fmd, ñ, wêl f,i wvq jqjfyd;a mdßfNda.slfhda iemhqug jvd jeäfhka b,a¨ï lrk neúka fuh ñ, jeäúug n,mdk w;r m%;sf,daujo fuh isÿ fõ' fï wkqj ksoyia jHjidh wd¾ÓlhlÈ ksIamdok ls%hdj,sh i|yd iïm;a fjkalsßï" ksIamdokh l< hq;= m%udKhka iy ñ, hkdÈh fj<|fmd, ;SrKh lrhs' fï wkqqj iïm;a fnod yeßfï yd m%fhdackhg .eksfï ld¾hlaIu;dk ñ, hdka;%Kh u.ska iy;sl lrhs' ^wd& ksoyia fj<|fmd< wd¾Ólhl mdßfNda.slhska l=ula ñ<§ .kafkao hk mdßfNda.sl ;SrKj, m%;sM,fhka miq ksIamdolhska ksIamdok ;SrK .kakd ksid mdßfNda.sl ;SrK u; moaO;sh ls%hd;aul fõ' tuksid" ksIamdok ;SrK .eksulg yd wjYH ksuejqu ,nd .eksug wjYH iïm;a fnod yeßug mdßfNda.slhd l=ula ñ,È .kafkao hk ;SrKh n,mdhs' ta wkqj" mdßfNda.slhd fj<|fmd< wd¾Ólh yiqrejk neúka Tyqg wels fuu n,h „ mdßfNda.sl iajdêm;Hh ‟ f,i kï lrhs'flfia fj;;a rch wd¾Ól lghq;=j, lsisjla isÿ fkdlrk fuu fj<|fmd< wd¾Ólhl wvq¨yqvqlï mj;s'

4'2 ksoyia jHjidh wd¾AÒlhl wvq¨yqvqlï

^w& fuu l%ufhaÈ b,a¨u yd iemhqu hk fj<|fmd, n,fõ. u; ;SrKh lrk ,o mj;akd fj<|fmd< ñ< hgf;a muKla NdKav ,nd .; yels neúka iuyr mqoa.,hskag ;u ðú;fha uq,sl wjYH;djhka mjd imqrd .; fkdyels fõ' ksoyia jHjidh wd¾Ólhl ñksiqka w;r wdodhï fnÈ hdfï wiudk;djh / úIu;djh úYd, f,i jeä fõ' iuyr ñksiqkg ñ,È .eksfï yelshdj fkdue;s ksid uQ,sl wjYH;d mjd iudc widOdrKh u.ska bj;a lrhs' nyq;rhla i|yd w;HjYH NdKv ksIamdokh lrkjd fjkqjg iqfLdamfNda.s NdKav ksmoúug iïm;a Ndú;d l< yel' ^wd& ,dNodhs;ajh wvq úu ksid wdl¾IKh fkdjk iuyr NdKav tkï" fmd,sia fiajh" yuqod fiajh" .sks ksúfï fiajh jeks fmdÿ NdKav ^iudch fmdÿfõ m%;s,dN N=la;s ú¢k NdKav& fm!oa.,sl jHjidh imhkq fkd,nhs' túg rch wd¾Ól ;SrK .eksfï ls%hdj,shg yd fmdÿ NdKav yd fiajd tkï ud¾. há;, myiqlï" mdie,a yd wOHdmkh" frday,a yd fi!LH fiajd" fmd,sis yd yuqod fiajd" .sks ksjk fiajd jeks oE iemhsug ueoy;a úh hq;=h' ^we& rcfha md,khla fkdue;s úu ksid msßjeh wvq tfy;a wêl ,dN Wmhd fok Nhdkl u;a øjH jeks iuyr wj.=K NdKav ksIamdokh isÿ úh yel'

^b& taldêldrhka yd iSudldß fj<| ls%hdjka ksid ;rÕldß;ajh bj;a lrhs' fuys wjidk m%;sM,h jkafka iuyr wdh;k fj<|fmd, fufyhjk w;r th mdßfNda.slhdf.a we,aug fya;= fkdfõ' fj<|fmdf,a tla;rd wdh;kj, n,h fmkajkq ,nhs' fujeks wjiA:d kshdukh lsßu i|yd rch ueoy;aùï isÿ l, hq;=h' ^B& úúO wdldrhkaf.ka ksIamdolhska w;r mj;akd ;rÕldß;ajh iïm;a kdia;shg fya;= úh yel' WodyrK f,i ;rÕldß m%pdrKh ^W& iuyr NdKav" úfYaIfhka m%d:ñl NdKav ^WodyrK f,i lDIsld¾ñl NdKav& j, ñf,ys wêl R;=uh fj<|fmd, ñ, WÉPdjpkhka we;s úh yels w;r ta i|yd rch ñ, ia:dhs lsßfï ñkqï ovq we;s lsßu wjYH fõ' by; tlsfkl wjia:djlÈ wd¾Ólhg rcfha ueoy;aúï u.ska idudkH ck;djg hym;la isÿ l< yel'

4'3 ie<iqïl< fyda úOdk wd¾Ólhl jdis

^w& ie,iqïl< wd¾Ólhl ksmoúh hq;= m%udKh ta i|yd iïm;a fnod yeßh hq;= wdldrh yd tajd úlsKsh hq;= ñ, ;SrKh lsßu rcfha ld¾hNdrhhs' rch iEu ksIamdok tallhla i|yd i,dlhla ;SrKh lrk w;r NdKav ksmoúu i|yd fiajd kshqla; l< hq;= / m%fhdackhg .; hq;= iïm;a m%udKhka ms<sn| uÕ fmkaúula lrhs' fuu l%uh u.ska iy;sl lrkq ,nk m%Odk ,laIKhla jkafka iïm;a fnod yeßfïÈ cd;sl uÜgfuka úYaf,aIKd;aulj ie,iqï lsßu jvd ;d¾lsl njhs' ^wd& ie,iqï.; wd¾Óhla ksoyia jHjidh wd¾Ólhlg jvd fmdÿ NdKav ksIamdokhg jeä ia:djr yelshdjla mj;sk nj fuhg mlaIj fmkakqï lrhs' ^we& fï wkqj iEu idudkH mqoa.,hl=g w;a ú¢h hq;= m%;s,dNh iudk f,i fnod yeßula isÿ lsßu i|yd ie<iqïl< wd¾Ólhla fhduq jk njg iuyre ;¾l lr;s

4'4 ie<iqïl< fyda úOdk wd¾Ólhl wjdis

^w& ie,iqïl< wd¾Ólhl iïm;a fnod yeßfï ld¾hlaIu;djh uq¿ m%cdjf.au wjYH;d úiaa;rd;aulj ;lafiare lsßfï rcfha mqfrdal:khka yd ie,iqïj, iïmq¾K;djh ksjerÈ;djh u; mj;S ' ñksiqkao Tjqkf.a wd¾Ól ;SrK .eksfï ksoyi N=la;s ú¢kq fkd,n;s' ieug jqjukd uq,sl oE iE§u yd tajd rch ;uka úiskau kshu l<

• wNHka;r yd ndysr ia:djr;djh" tkï ñ, uÜgu ^wNHka;r& úksuh wkqmd;h ^ndysr& mj;ajd .ksñka fkdkj;ajd mj;sk ixj¾Okh;a iu. fyd| wkd.;hla foig wd¾Ólh kshdukh lsßu yd È.=ld,fhaÈ ld,fhka ld,hg isÿ jk uq¿ f,dju me;sfrk ukaodjOukhka jeks pls%h n,mEfuka uq¿ f,dfjys isÿ jk wys;lr isoaëka u. yeßu

5'0 wd¾Ól kHdh

5'1 wd¾Ól úIh ;=, udkj yeisßï wOHhkh lrk ksid wd¾Ól úoHdj iudc úoHdjls' úoHdjla hkq ksßlaIK yd m¾fhaIK u.ska ±kqu /ia lr .eksfï wruqKska wOHhkh lrkq ,nk" tu wOHhkhkaf.ka ,nd .;a fidhd .eksï úfõpkd;aulj mßlaId lrkq ,nk yd tajd fmdÿ uq,O¾u yd kHdhhkag f.k tk úIhdkqnoaO wOHkhla f,i ks¾jpkh l< yel' iudc úoHdj hkq úoHd;aul l%u fõohka Ndú;fhka udkj iudcfha wdlD;sh yd ld¾hhka wOHkh lsßuhs' wd¾Ól úoHdj hkq wd¾Ól úoHd{hska m%Yak úYaf,aIKh lrkq ,nk wdldrh fmkakqï lrk yd udkj yeisßu i|yd kHdhhka jeä ÈhqKq lrñka yd tajd ixisoaëkag fyda i;H Ôú;fha isoaëkag tfrysj mÍlaId lrkq ,nk úoHdjls'

5 '2 i;H Ôú;fha isoaëka úYaf,aIKh lsßug yd myod Èug wd¾Ól úoHdj wdlD;shla imhkq ,enqj;a" wfkl=;a iudc úoHdjkag fukau úoHd;aul l%u fõohka Ndú;fhaÈ hï hï .eg¨ iudc úoHdjkag mj;s' fï i|yd ridhkd.dr mßlaIK isÿ l< fkdyel' iudc úoHdjg wkqj i;H f,dalfha iajNdjhka hgf;a m¾fhaIK ls%hd;aul l< hq;= w;r m¾fhaIKh lrk ksh; idOl fyda wjia:d ;ks ;ksj i,ld ne,sh fkdyel' tuksid wfkl=;a idOl wjia:djkag yd m%;sM,j,g n,mEï l< yels ksid wd¾Ól m¾fhaIKhkays m%;sM, taldka; úh yels hehs is;sh fkdye;' udkj yeisßï ms<sn| ´kEu úoHdkql+, wOHhkhla ;lafiare lr .;a ;Skaÿj,ska we;s lr .;a Wmqgd .;a ks.ukhka yd mqfrdal:kh l< fkdyels udkj yeisßï u; r|d mj;s' ñksiqka isÿ lrkafka l=ulao hkak ms<sn| mqfrdal:kh lsßu wmyiq ksid mqfrdal:khka yd wkd.;fhaÈ isÿ úh yels oE hï hï Wml,amkhka u; r|d mej;sh hq;= fõ'

5'3 wd¾Ól úoHdfõ uq,sl Wml,amkhka jkafka udkj yeisßï ;d¾lsl njhs' “ mdßfNda.slhska yd ksIamdolhska hï fohloa <Õd lr .eksug fhda.H f;aßï yd ;SrK i|yd ,nd .; yels fyd|u f;dr;=re Wmfhda.s lr .ks;s' ” ;d¾lsl yeisßï hkafkka weÕfjkafka ;SrK yd ls%hdldrlï miq mi we;s wNsfm%arKhla jk w;r mdßfNda.slhska ;u Wmfhda.s;dj yd ;Dma;sh Wmßu lsßu i|yd;a" ksIamdolhska ;u ,dN Wmßu lsßu

i|yd;a ls%hd lrk nj wd¾Ól úoHdj iïm%odhhslj Wml,amkh lrhs' ;d¾lsl nj ms<sn| Wml,amkh r|d mj;akd hï hï Wml,amkhka wNsfhda.hg ,la l< yels jqjo" hï wruqKla yd iïnkaOj ñksiqka ;d¾lsl f,i ls%hd lsßug W;aidy lsßfï uq,sl i;Hh tys wka;¾.;j mj;s' tu ksid fjk;a úl,am Wml,amk fkdue;s ksid ir, Ndjh wkqj fuu Wml,amkh fhda.H fõ'

5'4 wd¾Ól úoHdj úoHdjla fia ie,lsfïÈ h:dkqrEms yd wNsu;dkqrems wd¾Ól úoHdj wm fjka fjkaj y÷kd .; hq;=h' h:dkqrems m%ldYkhka l=ulao" l=ula jQfhao" l=ula isÿ úh yelso hk wjia:d ie,ls,a,g .kakd w;r úIh ldrKd u; jq úúO mqoa., ks.ukhka wkqj úIhdkqnoaO uq,O¾uhkaf.ka ;SrK .eksulg Tjqka iïnkaO fkdfõ' WodyrK f,i ^1& miq.sh jif¾ idudkH ñ, uÜgfï jeäúu 5 % ls' th i;H o;a; u; wruqKq.;j ;SrKh lrk ,o isoaOdka;hls' ^2& wd¾Ólh úiska wê;lafiarelrk ,o úksuh wkqmd;h È.gu mj;ajd f.k .sh fyd;a m%;sM,h l=ula fõúo wdkqNdúl ks.ukhka u.ska h:dkqrems m%ldYK mej;sh hq;=h' wfkla w;g wNsu;dkqrems m%ldYKhla l=ula úh hq;=o hk wjia:dj fiúu isÿ lrhs' tu ksid" tu m%ldY wdkqNdúl ks.ukhka mj;ajd .ksñka isÿ l< fkdyel' w.h úksYaphka u; fïjd mj;s'

6'0 iólrK yd m%ia;dr

6'1 wd¾Ól úoHd{hska úYaf,aIK WmlrKhla f,i yd meyeÈ,s lsßï hk oaú;ajh i|yd cHdñ;slj w¢k ,o m%ia;dr Wmfhda.s lr .ks;s' ixls¾K iïnkaO;djhla jvd myiq wdldrfhka meyeÈ,s lsßulao fuh isÿ lrhs' Z wdh;kh 2000 isg 2004 j¾Ih olajd ksIamdokh lrk ,o ksuejqï uÜgï fmkakqï lrk 1 jk j.=fjys f;dr;=re ie,ls,a,g .ksuq' j.=j 1 : Z wdh;kfha ksuejqu (2000 -2004) j¾Ih (^) ksuejqu ( oyia .Kkska j¾Ihlg ) 2000 11. 2001 14 2002 15 2003 12. 2004 16

m%ia;dr hkq úp,Hhka folla w;r mj;akd iyiïnkaO;djh fmkakqï lrk l%uhls' idudkH Ndú;fhaÈ m%ia;drhl ;sria ^fyda X & wlaIfhys iajdh;a; úp,Hh iy isria ^fyda Y & wlaIfhys mrdh;a; úp,Hho fmkakqï lrkq ,nhs'

4 Q = 2 thska Q = 2

P ys w.h ^ X & Q ys w.h ^ Y & 2 1 4 2 6 3 8 4 10 5

rEm igyka 5 - Ok nEjqu iys; iemhqï jl%h

6 ' 4 P yd Q w.hka m%ia;drfha ^rEm igyka 5& fhdod .eksfuka jl%h jfï isg ol=Kg by<g nEjqï jk nj fidhd .; yel' ñ, jeäúfïÈ m%udKh jeäúfuka fmkakqï lrkqfha ñ, jeäúfïÈ iemhqï m%udKho jeä jk njhs' tf,i jl%hl Ok nEjqfuka fmkakqï lrkafka hï ñ,lÈ „ ñ, ‟ yd „ m%udKh ‟ hk úp,Hhka fol w;r Ok iïnkaO;djhla we;s njhs' fuh iemhqï jl%hhs' fuu jl%hg wod, iólrKh jkafka iemhqï iólrKhhs'

6'5 P = 10 – Q f,i wmg .Ks; iólrKhla we;ehs is;uq' Q w.h 2 jqjfyd;a P ys w.h lShla fõúo@ P 8 la úh hq;=h' fuh wms Q ys wfkla w.hka i|yd wLKavj isÿ l< fyd;a wmg my; idxLHjka ,nd .; yel'

P(X)

P^

w.h

P(Y

Q ys w.h (X) P ys w.h (Y) 2 8 4 6 6 4 8 2 10 0 fuu ixLHd m%ia;drhl ,l=Kq lsßfuka ^ rEm igyk 6 & wmg my,g nEjqï jk f¾Ldjla ,efnk w;r" Q w.h jeä jk úg P w.h wvq jk ksid th m%;sf,dau fyda RK nEjqula iys; f¾Ldjls' fuh b,a¨ï jl%hhs' fuu jl%h i|yd wod, iólrKh jkqfha b,a¨ï iólrKhhs' rEm igyk 6 - RK nEjqula iys; b,a¨ï jl%h

6'6 b,a¨ï jl%h yd iemhqï jl%h fmkakqï lrk by; i|yka l< iñlrK fol tlg .eksfuka iy úi£fuka b,a¨ï m%udKh yd iemhqï m%udKh iudk jk ñ, my; mßÈ fiúh yel' P = 2Q ^iemhqu& ......................................... ^1& iy P = 10 – Q ^b,a¨u& ....................................... ^2&

P kï ñ,l§ iemhqï m%udKh yd b,a¨ï m%udKh iudk jk neúka , b,a¨u yd iemhqu hk folu i|yd ñ, uÜgu tlla fõ. bkamiq tu P ñf,a§ , 2Q ( iemhqï m%udKh ) = 10 – Q ( b,a¨ï m%udKh ) .....................................(3) th iq¿ l< úg"

0 2 4 6 8 10 m%udKh

P^

w.h