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British Empire
Who were Britain's main colonial rivals? - France; Spain; Portugal; Holland; Germany; Italy (although joined late as only unified in 1860). What was the main principle with which early European empires were run? - Mercantilism. What policy did mercantilism support? - Protectionism. What major event ensured that Britain had almost worldwide dominance? - The Napoleonic Wars. What occurred when Britain lost the War of American Independence? - A 'swing to the east'; founding a second British Empire which was more focused upon trade. Explain how Canada became a Dominion of Britain. - Originally settled by the French; there were the difficulties of governing both French and British settlers; 1837, a revolt from both groups; 1867, an Independent Federal State established. Explain how Australia became a Dominion of Britain. - 1788, Australia settled by 736 British convicts, women and guards; 1860, population rose to a million; tension is caused from an influx of Asian immigrants; gold rush in 1851, little competition with other countries; 1901 became federal dominion state and later a member of the Commonwealth. Give the history of the settlement of New Zealand. - Settled by Whalers & escaped convicts who traded with the indigenous Maori tribes; 25,000 settlers in 1850 to 300, in 1875; main export wool, 10 million sheep; invention of refrigerated ships allowed exportation of meat; 1907, became self-governing Dominion. Give the history of the settlement of South America - Settled by Dutch, Spanish, French, Portuguese and British which led to tension and then war; main export sugar and tobacco; 1810 - wars of independence formed independent South American states. What people originally settled in South Africa before the British? - The Dutch Boers. What was the ratio of white:native populations in South Africa? - 5: When did South Africa become a Dominion? - 1910 What is the advantage of self-government in terms of maintenance? - That it was cheaper than more direct forms of governance and control.
What can an interpretation of the development of self-government be in favour of the empire? - Yes, self governance was part of a grand scheme to spread civilisation; thus there was the eventual goal of breaking Empire. What about self-government argues that it was not part of a goal to break empire? - The evidence, that shows self governance was simply a mode of saving money to compensate for a growing defence budget and in some cases to appeasement of settlers. What are the different motivations for the expansion of Empire? - A "state of indifference"; formal vs. informal empire & gentlemanly capitalism. Who proposed the idea of a period of indifference? - Lenin. What was the reason for the so-called period of indifference? - The advent of free trade . What was the opinion of politicians on Empire, during the period of indifference? - The complete independence of British colonies was no only inevitable but desirable. What are the reasons for this opinion of Empire, during the state of indifference? - The maintenance of the colonies was becoming costly to the taxpayer; claimed people "in the highest quarter" had no wish to preserve the Empire. What evidence is there to support the view of the period of indifference? - Troop withdrawal from New Zealand, Canada and Australia; 1861 recommendation by a Parliamentary Select Committee of the abandonment of British possessions in West Africa; the granting of self-government to all settled colonies - apart from West Indies and Western Australia. What is the argument against the period of indifference? - Theory based upon the writings, speeches and letters of free-trade liberals who had little influence over government policy, the Colonial Office, or the two major political parties, failed to explain why the empire expanded; annexation or occupation of New Zealand, Gold Coast, Lauban, Hong Kong, Natal, Lagos, Sierra Leone and the Traansvaal. Who proposed the idea of an informal and formal empire? - Gallagher and Robinson. What are the arguments for informal/formal empire? - Development of formal empire driven by the economic dominance of British industry, trade and finance. Attempts to gain a dominant position within the worldwide trade and finance system; 'Trade with informal control if possible, trade with rule where necessary.' After 1815 Britain looking for new markets, new investment, stable sources for raw materials thus gentlemanly capitalism.
What major political reform occurred during 1815-70? - The development of self- government. What was the condition of self-government for colonies? - Could only be granted to 'politically advanced colonies' ; well established colonies with large white populations. What were the dates for colonies gaining self-government? - Canada; 1867. New Zealand; 1856. Cape Colony; 1872. What was the importance of self-government? - It secured the loyalty of the white colonies. In what way were self-governing colonies still reliant on Britain? - Colonies became much more dependent on British investment, trade, expertise and defence. What was the major economic reform between 1815 and 1870? - Free trade. When was free trade in Britain introduced? - 1846 Why was free trade able to be so successful? - Britain had gained an enormous lead over economic rivals in industry trade and finance because of the industrial revolution. Give some statistics for the British industry between 1815-60 - Responsible for 60% total growth in world manufacturing; whilst only being 2% of the world's population. In 1850, Britain accounted for 50% of world trade in coal, cotton and iron. 1/3 of all overseas trade was carried out by British ships. Give example of innovations which furthered Britain's development - Telegraph Steamship Railway New international banking and finance systems, based in London. What was the impact of the invention of the telegram? - Revolutionised world communication. Used to take 73 days to send a message to Australia by boat, now only took a number of hours. What was the impact of the steamship? - Sped up naval voyage significantly; e.g. only 22 days to make Atlantic crossing by 1833. Vessels could now travel upstream meaning regions could be opened to trade; explorers and coaling stations became strategic necessities to the Navy. Who were the main groups campaigning for free trade? - Anti-Corn League (1839) Free trade economists; Adam Smith, David Ricardo and James Mill Bankers and financiers from the City of London.
What was the most dramatic step in the move towards free trade? - The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. What were the strengths of having such a widespread empire? - Many resupply stations for ships. What were the disadvantages of such a widespread empire? - Very difficult to protect. How much did Britain trade with India by 1900? - India consumed 1/5 of British exports. How did Britain originally try to deter further Russian expansion in the East? - Alliance with Japan in 1902. Name some of the achievements of the British Empire? - Ruled over 1/4 of the world. Spread capitalism, English language, Christianity, law and order, technology and democracy the pillars of the modern world. Give economic/financial reasons for why the British Empire expanded - Protection of trade interests in profitable regions; taking control of scarce resources - gold, diamonds etc. East India Company starts involvement in India. The informal Empire became more formal as mercantilism moved to free trade. Industrial revolution (bought new technology, steamship, telegram). What advance in empire was achieved? - Irrigation in Egypt and India Companies given royal charters: B.S.A.C Cotton in Egypt, Wool New Zealand, diamonds in Sierra Leone. GOLD in Transvaal (1886), G Coast and Oz Importance of India as the main trading colony; 60% of imports British by 1913. British consumer market; tea, coffee sugar. INVESTMENT; £2 to £4 billion between 1900-13; 4th largest RAILWAY in the world UGANDA 660z What were the strategic/military factors that led to the expansion of the British Empire and how did they influence imperial policy? - Suez Canal Company shares; £4 million, this intervention in Sudan and Egypt for strategy. India; protection of the 'jewel in the crown'. Somaliland; protection of route to the Indian Ocean. Distrust caused failure of Brussels conference (H. M. Stanley signed over 450 treaties). Berlin conference; international rivalry and competition; "effective occupation" was the starting gun for competition; 90% colonised. Rivalry with French (West) and Germans (East) in Africa; Germany funded Kenyan forces, Scramble for Africa.
Philosophy of the "White Man's burden." (Social Darwinism) Pride in Empire: 1886 Colonial and Indian Exhibition; living exhibits. Christianity, Civilisation, Commerce (Livingstone). Saving the heathen. Education reform: Further education in India and Milner schools. DOMESTIC PRESSURE TO ACT. What geographical features made India valuable? - Fertile and cultivable land. Huge land mass; same size as Europe, excluding Russia. Hot climate - able to grow exotic goods i.e. tea, sugar, Indigo. Natural barrier of the Himalayas. Many sites for strategic trading ports. What were the main ethnic/religious/linguistic groups in India and where were they located? - Hinduism the prevalent religion. Some areas more specifically Islamic, Sikh, or Buddhist. Some ethinicities fought for further independence, such as the Tamils. North spoke mixture of English, Scandinavian and Mediterranean languages. Himalayan regions spoke Tibetan. What impact did the British have on India's language? - 200 different languages; originally Persian under Mughals, then English under the British Raj; then Hindi as India became independent. English still needed to reach higher level education. What was the importance of the caste system? - Determined the amount of power and influence people had. A person's place in the caste system was pre-determined. Could be used by the British to put themselves in charge. Roughly how many castes were there in India? - 2000 Who were the lowest members in a caste society? - The Untouchables. Who were the highest members in Indian society? - The Brahmins. Where was the main centre of Mughal power? - Mainly based in the north-west. What religion were the Mughals? - Islamic. What was the Islamic approach to the caste system? - Did not care much for it, mostly followed by Hindus. Many converted to Islam to escape their low status within the caste system.
When was a charter granted to the East India Company? - 1600 From what point did the East India Company become the dominant power in India and until when? - 1757 (after the French defeat at the Battle of Plassey, Seven Years War) until 1857 (Indian Mutiny). How did political control in India originally grow? - Through agreements with Nawabs and princes as the Mughal Empire started to decline. How did the East India Company's power grow? - A cycle of acquiring new markets and strategic locations to protect existing markets and pay for war meant the company's influence expanded. In what ways did the East India Company take on a governing role? - It took on duties such as public administration and tax collection. How did the E.I.C consolidate its power? - Large private armies (100,000 troops) and fortifications in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. Why did the British government take more steps to gain greater control of the E.I.C's activities? - There was the concern that it was becoming too powerful. How did British imperialism influence affected Indian society during the East India Company's rule? - Liberal beliefs known as Westernisation led to British attempts to change Indian culture. For instance: Criminalisation of Sati in 1829, (wife burning.) Police suppression of Thuggee by 1837. Education, railway and telegram systems established; without regards to locals' concerns about the pace and methods of change. English was made the official language of law, administration and government. The controversial policy of annexation. What was Sati? - Hindu custom requiring widows of notable Hindu men to throw themselves upon the funereal pyre and hence sacrifice herself. What were Thugees? - Hindu followers of the goddess Kali engaged in human sacrifice of random victims typically through strangulation. Which now appears to have been more criminal than religious. How was the policy of annexation used to expand the control of the East India Company's control of formerly princely states? - If a ruler of a Hindu state died without a heir then the province was declared British territory. What major event occurred in India during 1857? - The Indian Mutiny.
A five month siege at Lucknow with 3000 troops and families. British press reported allegations of rape and abuse. Lucknow was eventually relieved by the non-sepoy British Army Order restored in June 1858. What were the consequences of the Indian Mutiny (1857)? - Retribution deliberately aimed to strike fear into the peasants to stop a general uprising. Entire villages suspected of supporting the mutineers were massacred, as were the Mughal Emperor's heirs to stop them from becoming figureheads Cawnpore Mutineers; forced to lick clean the blood soaked walls, eat pork or beef and then publically hanged or loaded into/against a cannon and blown apart. Mutiny's effect upon the army? - Sepoys reduced by 40% and Brits increased by 50%; 3:1 rather than 9:. Sepoys recruited from more loyal Sikh areas and adjacent regiments deliberately made of different faiths. The animosity remained. Sepoys given a choice of grease and cartridge made obsolete by 1867. Suez canal (1869) and telegram system (1870) made reinforcement, if needed, quicker. The British learnt not to meddle with religious custom. However, at home the mutiny had confirmed Social-Darwinist views of foreign savagery. What happened to the East India Company after the Indian Mutiny? - It was disbanded. Why was the East India Company disbanded after the Indian Mutiny? - The British government deemed it too powerful and decided to take formal control of the company and the Mughal Empire. Which Parliament Act was passed in order to give the government control over India? - The Government of India Act (1858). What were the terms of the The Government of India Act (1858)? - East India Company's territories and administrative duties passed on to the queen and government. A position of Secretary of State of the Indian office (a cabinet post) was created; given responsibility for governance of India and the Indian Civil Service. An Indian Council of 15 advisors on Indian affairs was created to assist the Secretary. A Viceroy who exercised the direct authority of the monarch replaced the Company's Governor General. How much of India was still controlled by "Princely States" by the time of the Indian Mutiny? - 25%-35% How many Princely states were there in India? - 562 What was the stance of the Princely states at the time of the Indian Mutiny 1857? - Largely loyal to the British.
What was the compensation for the loyalty of Princely states? - Rewarded with land and money. What was the relationship between the British and the Princely states? What were their liberties under the British? - Given some local autonomy; allowed their own laws, holidays, languages, ministers and rulers; however they couldn't instigate actions that went against the Raj. How many British administrators were there in India and what was the population of India? - 3000 officials ruling over 3 million Indians. How did the British govern the huge subcontinent of India? - The development of an infrastructure of railways, roads, postal services etc. was all beneficial to British rule, yet also required immense planning and monitoring. What were the key components of the governing body in India? - A Secretary of State in Britain and the figurehead in India of a Viceroy representing royal authority. An Indian Civil Service that was comprised of a British elite and, at a lower level, educated Indians, entrance qualified through examination. A series of local councils with little real power and local officials. The Indian army supported by the British Army was the force behind this power. What measures did the British take in order to allow the Indians a greater say in the governing of their country? - Cautious measures to involve Indians in the government such as Indian advisors in the Legislative Council. Why can it be said that the involvement of more Indians in government had little effect?
- Advice/demands could be ignored. Only allowed into minor positions. Had to take extremely tough examinations in order to join the British Civil Service. What was Queen Victoria's opinion of India? - She had a considerable warmth in the relationship between herself and India. Indians welcomed direct if distant control and Victoria herself maintained a special affection for India; such as by having an Indian personal adviser in her household, Abdul Karim; also that she became Empress of India. What reforms were carried out in the British Indian Arm after the Indian Mutiny? - - British troops 40,000 (1857) ->70,000 (1890's)
- Senior roles (officer) and artillery only trusted to British troops
- Regiments made mixed-caste and more loyal castes replaced previous. Importing Ghurkhas and Sikhs to these groups and other being in the B.I.A was prestigious
- 3000 miles of railway were built to allow a swifter response along with a separate Imperial Police Force -
- well paid jobs for Britons in India's administration and lucrative rental property for landlords
- British investment was attracted to opportunities to develop Indian infrastructure What evidence is there to suggest that British investment was simply exploitative? - India's share of the world income went from 27% in 1700 (compared to Europe's share of 23%) to 3% in 1950 Why can one suggest that Industrialisation in India was delayed? - - out competed industry by foreign nations where people had higher incomes and therefore there was more incentive to invent better methods of production
- deliberately done by Britain do prevent Indian advancement against their rule What was the tone of the White Man's Burden poem? - White men had a duty to take care of non-whites in order to lead them towards civilisation as they were at the time to be considered 'heathen' What were the drawbacks of British rule in India? - - the education system only encouraged English values, customs and language
- famine, illiteracy and widespread poverty still persisted
- some factories were built but with the main focus of providing foodstuffs for Britain ( tea plantation in 1851 to 295 by 1871)
- the British encouraged the Indians to buy British manufactured goods and discouraged development of Indian industries such as the cotton industry
- Indians only allowed minor positions of power and ultimate political and military control retained by the British
- the caste system encouraged to politically divide the Indian people and discourage rebellion What were the benefits of British rule in India? - - British social reformers such as Mary Carpenter established schools for girls and trained female teachers
- a fee-paying education system was introduced. 60,000 graduated university in 1857- 87 with many going to work for the British government
- the civil service, police and banks provided jobs to wealthier Indians who formed a new professional class
- thousands of lines of railway were built (4th largest in the world 1909) to assist military control and trad routes. This created construction jobs where "loyal" castes were favoured - from 1,349 km in 1860 to 25,495 km (15,842 mi) in 1880
- new methods of land irrigation led to an improvement in agricultural output on British owned farms (6%)
- the British trade allowed Indians to sell valuable crops on the international market but this was at the expense of cheaper crops for local consumption
- a complex judicial system was introduced to protect liberties with expensive lawyers
- Indian nobles were granted land, titles, medals and high positions in the government to win their loyalty
What were the trade and economic factors for British expansion into Africa? (smiTe) - - Early trade from C16th for gold and ivory
- By C18th involvement in Africa was mainly about the slave trade until with was outlawed (1807)
- Discovery of more minerals and resources inland increased economic interest in the region
- Coal, Iron and timber were needed to fuel the industrial revolution (especially during the Long Depression 1870's)
- Manufactured goods clothing and weapons, sold back to Africa
- Construction/protection of the Suez canal and British trade routes - What part did individuals have in British expansion in Africa? (smIte) - - Merchant imperialists such as Goldie and Rhodes capitalised on new commodities and industries for fame and fortune
- Many of these figures had political connections and high personal ambitions
- Many also believed in the politics of colonialism What part did explorers have in British expansion in Africa? (smitE) - - Political and public interest was also drawn to the process of exploring the "Dark Continent"
- Tracing and mapping out and the continents waterways (Niger river)
- By 1857 most of Africa had been mapped out yet the Congo River was not charted until a decade later Explorers would publish findings on geography and tribes (as well as spreading exotic tales of their travels)
- Without explorers locating regions with reserves of gold, palm oil and diamonds there would not have been the same economic drive for the "Scramble" for Africa What were the moral factors that led to the expansion of the British Empire in Africa? (sMite) - Many Christian missionaries saw it as their religious duty the spread the Christian faith to non-Christians (To save the 'heathen') What role did Mary Slessor have in expanding the British Empire? - Lived among the Efik tribe in Nigeria and helped to establish a British influence in the region and was later made vice-consul in 1892 What were the strategic factors that led to British expansion in Africa? (Smite) - - A string of forts and defences were set up on the Gold Coast and Gambia
- Competition with the French seemed the main drive Cape Colony which was seized from the Dutch during the Napoleonic wars was crucial to maintaining sea route access to the Middle East, China, Australia and most importantly India
- Suez canal increases the importance
Explain the history of why the British became involvement in Egypt - - Egypt's economy was weak and relied on foreign loans but by 1875 Egypt was virtually bankrupt
- In order to raise money, the Khedive, Ismail sold his canal shares to Britain
- the following year Britain and France jointly took control over Egypt's finances and increasingly its administration
- fearing an alliance between France and nationalists, Britain invaded in 1882 Describe the nature of how the British became more involved in Egypt - - Tewfik becomes new Khedive (Ismail removed 1879) with British financial and political support.
- Taxes imposed on population and army reduced by 2/3rds...
- Nationalist revolts led by Arabi erupted in 1882 Gladstone, recognising the risk to the Suez Canal and Egypt, tries to get French support for an invasion but fails
- 50 Europeans killed in Alexandria and naval forces are sent
- British army secure Suez and defeat Arabi's forces in less than an hour.
- Khedive Tewfik remained but only as a figurehead while government of Egypt fell into British hands under Major Evelyn Baring who became Consul-General What was the original intention for British occupation of Egypt? - Only to be temporary Why was the British occupation prolonged until 1956? - - lack of reliable collaborators
- events in the south - Ismail's invasion of the Sudan and the slave trade What did Egypt come to be recognised as under British rule? - A veiled protectorate Who was the British Prime Minister at the time of the invasion of Egypt? - Gladstone What was Gladstone's opinion of the occupation of Egypt? - Reluctant to get involved but was forced to because of national interest How can the British invasion of Egypt be justified? - It was not an act of territorial expansion but a protective measure for British economic interests Give the events of the evolution of British involvement in the Sudan - - General Gordon sent by British to act as Governor General of Sudan (1877-80)
- Muhammad Ahmad declares himself Mahdi (redeemer of Islam, successor of the Prophet Muhammad) and forms a Jihadist army against Egyptian/British rule
- Khartoum (capital) surrounded by 1882 and General -Gordon is told to evacuate but refused
- In 1885 the garrison was overrun and killed and Gordon himself was beheaded
- It was not until 1896 that the Sudan would be re-taken by Kitchener What was the effect of General Gordon's death on the popularity of Gladstone? - It was a major blow to his popularity. Critics said Gladstone had neglected military affairs and had not acted promptly enough to save the besieged Gordon. Critics inverted his
acronym, "G.O.M." (for "Grand Old Man"), to "M.O.G." (for "Murderer of Gordon"). He resigned later that year and his party was defeated in the subsequent general election What was Gladstone condemned of? - His reluctance for imperialism What does the condemnation of Gladstone indicate about the British public during the 1880's? - They were pro-imperialist What uncertainties were there about Africa during the mid-1870's? - - much of the continent was unexplored
- Europeans saw it as 'vacant'- therefore saw no reason to intervene What were the key motivations for European expansion into Africa? - - possibilities of undiscovered/rare resources
- desperation from the Great Depression - possibility of new markets
- gaining prestige - French regaining prestige after humiliating defeat in the Franco- Prussian War
- influence of individuals - Livingstone's 3 c's, Men on the Spot e.g Rhodes
- moral factors - spreading civilisation, Christianity and commerce (3 c's)
- strategic factors - protecting sea routes to India (Suez Canal, expansion into Sudan and Uganda), preventing expansion of other empires
- public pressure to protect and expand economic opportunities such as big importers/exporters of desired resources
- pressure of Chartered Companies - IBEAC (1888) pressured British expansion into Uganda, Kenya, Zanzibar and Somaliland What does the massive expansion into Africa indicate about British imperial policy? - There was an increased readiness to take over territory whereas before the government had been content to rely on informal control through trade treaties and understandings with local leaders, only using force as a last resort What major events occurred during the expansion into Africa? - - The Brussels Conference (1876)
- The Berlin Conference (1884-5) Why were the conferences held? - The aggressive expansion was beginning to carry the threat of war which the European powers wanted to avoid When was the Brussels Conference held? - 1876 When was the Berlin Conference held? - 1884- Who held the Brussels Conference? - King Leopold of Belgium What was agreed on in the Brussels Conference? - - The Africans were incapable of extracting the valuable raw materials and Europeans had the ability
- Evident in the complete disregard for natural, ethnic, tribal, linguistic or religious divisions in the boundaries
- Despite signing up to take care of the indigenous peoples the powers did little to tackle the remaining slavery and overlooked religious customs and the well-being of the indigenous How much land was uncolonised in Africa in 1884? - 80% How much land was uncolonised in Africa by 1900? - 10% What two republics existed in South Africa? - - South African Republic of the Transvaal
- Orange Free State What people lived in the South African Republics? - The Boers When did the British recognise the legitimacy of the Boer Republics? - In the 1850's Despite the recognition of the Boer Republics, what did the British still claim? - Control over their affairs What tensions were there between the British and the Bantu tribes? - - 1877-78 - Xhosa war where tribal communities were annexed in the Cape
- 1879 - Zulus defeated at Ulundi and Zululand incorporated into Natal - Pedi also defeated and a fort built at Mashonaland, home of the Shoda people - tribal land ownership eroded by British expansion
- discovery of precious materials brought wealth to the area but stayed in the hands of the settlers
- laws were passed and jobs allocated to make sure Black Africans did not reap any profits and were segregated What tensions were there with the Boer Republics? - - 1879 - Boers failed to defeat the Pedi tribe and reluctantly accepted British aid and intervention in Zululand to deal with the Zulus and Pedi
- 1880 - Boer Republics declared independence and attack the British (First Boer War)
- 1881 - Convention of Pretoria after British defeat at Majuba Hill
- 1885 - British seize Bechuanaland in fear of German expansion in the area
- 1886 - discovery of gold in the Transvaal brought a mass of Uitlanders including Rhodes and further annexations What was the nature of the British defeat at Majuba Hill during the First Boer War? - 150 killed What was agreed upon in the Convention of Pretoria? - Recognition of the Transvaal as self-governing except over foreign affairs
What were the different forms of control by the British in the Informal Empire? - - free trade agreements or investment
- commerce financed by British capital, carried by British ships and providing profits for British companies
- settlement - subsequent adoption of native adoption of British language and culture Give examples of countries in the Asia where the British gained control of through trade treaties - - Siam (Thailand)
- Iran What was the nature of British involvement in Latin America? - - British public capital stood at over £80 million by 1865 (10% of British imports/exports in 2nd half of C19th)
- City financier, Charlers Morrison, acquired the Mercantile Bank of the River Plate in Argentina in 1881 and invested directly into the country's utilities
- British citizens in Buenos Aires lived an elite lifestyle with their own institutions and way of life How did Britain acquire territories in its Informal Empire in Latin America? - - Pressure put on Mexico in 1861 to keep access open to and uphold free trade treaties
- Threat of the Royal Navy ensured compliance in Peru (1857) and Chile (1863) What can be seen as a primary reason for British involvement in China? - The need to finance the activities of the East India Company through the sale of Opium to the Chinese Why was Britain able to influence China to the extent that it did? - The weakness of the Chinese empire and the relative strength of the British How was Britain able to make concessions from China? - The use of Britain's naval power to threaten attempts to disrupt the opium trade between India and China What treaties gave Britain greater influence in China? - - Treaty of Nanking (1842)
- Treaty of Tientsin (1858) What did Britain gain from the treaties with China? - - Important trading bases - Hong Kong, Shanghai
- 1863 - Robert Hart appointed as the head of Chinese Imperial Customs Office What did the appointment of Robert Hart to a position of power in China allow Britain to do? - Allowed them to protect British interests:
- unhindered access to Chinese markets Give another example of how Britain forced a country into its Informal Empire - Afghanistan 1879:
- the threat of a full invasion secured the Treaty of Gandamak which provided Britain with territorial gains and control over Afghanistan's foreign policy
