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Cortex Frontal lobe Frontal cortex Frontal cortex and emotional processing Prefrontal cortex Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC) DLPFC lesions Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex (VLPFC) Schizophrenia and DLPFC ADHD Sensory cortex Primary somatosensory cortex Cerebral cortex Declarative memory Semantic memory Skill learning Orbitofrontal cortex Operant conditioning Motor cortex Basal ganglia (contains striatum) Operant conditioning Skill learning Damage effect on skill learning Parkinsonโs Disease Dorsal striatum Operant conditioning Response (not place) learning in rat maze Procedural/skill learning (Morris Water Maze) Hippocampus Place learning Place cells Place learning in rat maze Classical conditioning (latent inhibition) Generalization and discrimination learning Schizophrenia Semantic and episodic memory (consolidation)
Declarative and skill memory (Morris Water Maze) Emotional learning PTSD Amygdala Emotional influences on learning and memory Lateral nucleus (receives input - fast and slow) Central nucleus (output - expression) Basolateral nucleus (modulation and stress hormones) Interpositus, inferior olive, Purkinje cell Classical conditioning Lesions Brainstem Ventral tegmental area (VTA) Substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) Cerebellum Skill learning Memory systems Win-shift task (hippocampus relational/place learning) Win-stay task (striatum response learning) Conditioned place preference (amygdala emotional learning) Weather forecasting game - striatum and hippocampus (human study) Classical conditioning - amygdala and hippocampus (human study) Alzheimerโs Disease Hippocampal shrinkage Neurofibrillary tangles Amyloid plaques Basal forebrain nuclei Unreliable early diagnosis Genes (APP) and link to Down Syndrome
โ Decreased digit span โ Poor memory updating (N-back and self-ordered memory test) โ Poor planning (Tower of Hanoi) โ Poor task switching with perseverance (Wisconsin Card Sorting) โ Poor overall IQ โ Lesions of PFC disrupt short-term memory โ โ
โ Anterior-to-posterior gradient in PFC from abstract to specific Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC) โ Manipulation โ Neurons fire while info maintained in working memory (delay neurons) โ Central executive - manipulation and monitoring โ Strong activation during โ Retrieval of memories for past events โ Remembering source of past memories โ Memory retrieval - finding information with goal in mind (targeted retrieval) DLPFC lesions โ Impair delayed self-ordered visual recognition task requiring memory manipulation (which of these have I not selected previously?) โ DLPFC no impairment in delayed recognition task requiring only memory maintenance (which of these have I seen before?) โ Relies of familiarity alone (MTL function) โ New objects every trial โ If same objects used repeatedly, thereโs an impairment (all are familiar) โ Studies of psychiatric patients of PFC โ Damage to left PFC โ impaired auditory rehearsal โ Damage to right PFC โ impaired visual working memory
โ Acetylcholine release from nucleus basalis occurs when stimulus is salient, as determined by the amygdala โ Release determines whether particular stimulus will cause cortical remapping
Primary somatosensory cortex
โ Operant conditioning and punishment โ Insular cortex (insula) โ Conscious awareness of the body and emotional states โ Dorsal posterior insula - perception of pain, hunger, anger, and disgust โ Injury, breakups, loss โ Disliking โ Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) โ Signals motivation โ More pain = more motivation to change something โ Less reward = less motivation to work โ Avoid
Cerebral cortex
Declarative memory โ Sensory cortex: first cortical processing sensory for a sense โ Association cortex: links across senses Semantic memory โ Stored over many specialized processing centres in cortex โ Example: memory of apple
โ Visual components in visual cortex โ Olfactory components in olfactory lobe โ Associations with other fruits in associative cortex โ
Skill learning
โ Involved in controlling complex actions
Orbitofrontal cortex
Operant conditioning โ Part of prefrontal cortex โ Involved in learning to predict outcomes of behaviour โ Receives sensory input โ Sends output to the striatum โ Striatum determines which motor responses are executed
Operant conditioning
โ Set of subcortical structures โ Links sensory and motor cortices โ Substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc)
Skill learning
โ Collects input from throughout fortex โ Outputs to โ Thalamus -> motor cortex โ Brainstem โ Regulate velocity, direction, amplitude of movement โ Important in forming new skill memories โ โ Skill-relevant neural activity increases as skills are learned โ Cued T-maze task: cue given, signalling which arm would have food โ Later in training, 90% of neurons showed task-relevant firing mostly at beginning and end of task
โ Activity increases as skills are learned โ Weather prediction game โ Link sensory events to responses
Damage effect on skill learning
โ Radial-arm maze modes (2) โ Declarative: arms have food but no markings - must subsequently search baited arms, remember which have already been visited โ Procedural: half arms are lit always have food - learn light -> food (habit/skill) โ Hippocampus damage impairs declarative memory but spares procedural โ Basal ganglia damage impairs skill learning but spares declarative
Parkinsonโs Disease
โ Muscular rigidity, tremors, difficulty initiating movements โ Less dopamine secretion from brainstem neurons to modulate basal ganglia and cerebral cortex activity โ Difficulty learning serial reaction time and tracing tasks โ Particular deficits in closed skills and in those skills becoming autonomous โ Deep brain stimulation to basal ganglia-cortical loop โ Electrical current changes activity patterns in circuit to temporarily relieve symptoms
Place learning
Place cells โ Habituation, sensitization, and familiarization โ Each cellโs receptive field in particular location or place โ Action potential firing increases frequency when in that location โ Cellโs selectivity for location develops first time animal visits that location, persists over repeated visits โ Place learning in rat maze โ Food reward always same location โ Preferred after 8 (not 16) days of training โ Hippocampus inactivation impaired learning
Classical conditioning (latent inhibition)
โ Active during this but its removal doesnโt result in impairments โ Removal eliminates latent inhibition (less conditioning with pre-exposure to CS) โ Animal would condition faster with cue with prior experience โ Role in processing sensory stimuli and their salience/importance, prior to cerebellum receiving this info โ US modulation (Rescorla-Wagner) occurs in cerebellum โ CS modulation (Mackintosh) occurs in hippocampus and medial temporal lobe
Generalization and discrimination learning
โ Hippocampus role in learning about relationships between sensory cues
โ Hippocampus damage disrupts performance in โ Sensory preconditioning (compound exposure) tasks โ Pairing 2 dissimilar stimuli enables learning about 1 to generalize to the other โ Pre-training โ Odor + light at same time โ Light + lever press = food โ Odor = lever press โ Acquired-equivalence tasks โ Novel similar predictions based on prior similar consequences โ When 2 stimuli predict same outcome (become generalized), even if stimuli are dissimilar โ ex) girl, boy, man, woman, and the kind of fish they like โ Latent inhibition โ Familiar stimuli takes longer to acquire learning โ Prior experience with a cue, not behaviorally relevant โ Slowing of future associations with cue โ Active in early training, then role declines โ Facilitates learning about relationships between stimuli (relational learning) โ
Schizophrenia
โ Smaller hippocampi โ Learn basic associations, fail to transfer across related stimuli (generalization deficits) โ Antipsychotics partially treat this impairment
PTSD
โ Smaller hippocampus risk factor for PTSD โ Hyperactive amygdala also more likely to develop PTSD โ Cerebral cortex involved in controlling complex actions and basal ganglia link sensory events to responses
Amygdala
โ Collection of subcortical nuclei in anterior temporal lobe (not all nuclei participate in emotional processing)
Emotional influences on learning and memory
โ No amygdala = no conditioned skin conductance response
โ Bilateral amygdala damage: US is effective, but CS-US association not learned Lateral nucleus (receives input - fast and slow) โ Collects inputs and appears to encode emotional relevance of stimuli โ Encode emotional relevance of stimuli โ Thalamus: fast and rough input - gets to amygdala quickly โ Minimal processing โ Run โ Cortex: slow but accurate input โ Assess - itโs a bear, I will seek shelter Central nucleus (output - expression) โ Organizes expression of emotional responses โ Freezing and lowered heart rate for rabbits โ Fright, outbursts of rage for humans โ Disruption -> impaired emotional learning Basolateral nucleus (modulation and stress hormones) โ Modulates memory strength - increased by emotion โ Increase storage of emotional memories
Classical conditioning
โ Brainstem, cerebellar deep nuclei, cerebellar cortex โ Purkinje inhibit interpositus โ โ Rescola-Wagner: errors in prediction drive learning โ Mackintosh: attention changes processing of CS
Lesions
โ Interpositus lesions: destroy and prevent CRs, because CR's output pathway is interpositus nucleus โ Cerebellar cortex (includes Purkinje cells) lesions: affect timing the CR correctly with respect to CS โ Don't blink at appropriate time
Brainstem
Ventral tegmental area (VTA)
โ Operant conditioning โ Sends dopamine neuromodulation to other brain areas โ Powerful reinforcement โ โ Dopamine: โwantโ - motivational value (cravings)
Substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc)
โ Operant conditioning โ Part of basal ganglia โ Contains dopamine-producing neurons โ Projects to striatum
Cerebellum
Skill learning
โ Important for learning and performing movement sequences that require precise timing and involve tracking a target โ Cerebral cortex involved in controlling complex actions and basal ganglia link sensory events to responses
