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BLP EXAM 4 QUESTIONS WITH CORRECT
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Factors that affect memory in delayed-matching-to-sample - ANS ✓Nature of sample stimulus
- some stimuli are easier to remember than others Duration of exposure to sample stimulus
- longer exposure = better recall Retention interval between sample and choice task
- longer interval = poorer recall What is learned in Delayed-Matching-To-Sample? - ANS ✓One rule: choose same as sample Multiples rules: if x, then choose x; if y, then choose y; if z, then choose z, etc Premack (using baby chimps) - ANS ✓Training: delayed-matching-to-sample with set stimuli Testing: Used new stimuli (chimp had not seen these presented before) Predictions:
- If using "same as" rule, then should get answer correct during testing
- if using specific rules, then should not get answer correct during testing Results: Answered correctly to new stimuli Memory for Places (Spatial Location - ANS ✓Morris Water Maze Radial Arm Maze
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- Rats search radial arms in random pattern
- Rats search the radial arm maze in a different pattern every time (no set strategy)
- Rats do not typically revisit arms that they have already searched (make very few errors) Question: How are they searching/solving the maze without making errors? Phase I: allow rats to only search 4 arms of 8-arm radial maze. Four-hour delay (rotate maze 90 degrees) - changes spatial location of arms Phase II: allow rat access to all arms Predictions:
- If rat is using scent cues to solve the radial arm maze, then it will visit the arms that it did not visit yet, even though the spatial location of those arms has been moved
- if rat is using spatial location (cues on the walls) to solve the maze, then it will go to the arms that are in the spatial location that it has not yet visited (causing it to revisit arms that were moved to a new spatial location). Results: Rats go to the spatial location that they had not yet visited. Memory: Encoding Information (Stimulus Coding) - ANS ✓Definition: The process of taking information in through your senses and translating it into a form that your brain can "write down" and store for later use. Factors that Influence encoding: - ANS ✓Selective Attention - Focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others. Constantly working Stimuli compete for our attention. We can only fully attend to one thing at a time
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Test: Reaction to Tone? Reaction to Noise Results: Noise - > Yuck face Tone - > no yuck face Imagery in Non-Human Animals Study #2 by P. Holland (Mediated Acquisition) - ANS ✓Phase I: Tone - > Flavor 1 Noise - > Flavor 2 Phase II: Tone - > "mental image of flavor 1" - > Nothing Noise - > "mental image of flavor 2" - >illness Test: Reaction to F1? Reaction to F2? Results: Avoid Flavor 2, even though it was never paired directly with illness Imagining past and future events (Mental Time Travel) - ANS ✓Retrospective coding - memories for past events Prospective coding - remembering plans for future action Both retrospective and prospective coding rely on the same brain areas Mental Time Travel in Animals - ANS ✓Rats - solving radial arm maze - use retrospective coding, then switch to prospective coding by the end. Chickadees - will eat less sunflower seeds if they think that mealworms are coming later (can plan for future meal) Directed Forgetting - ANS ✓The accuracy of recall can be modified by cues or instructions indicating that something should (or should not) be remembered.
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R-cue - "remember this!" cue F-cue - "forget this!" cue Significance: memory is an active process that can be brought under stimulus control. Directed Forgetting in Animals: - ANS ✓Pigeons remembered items that were cued as "remember this" and did not remember items that were cued as "forget this!" Why do we forget - ANS ✓Interference Retroactive Interference Proactive interference Memory: Retrieving Information - ANS ✓Ebbinghaus and the "forgetting curve" across time Retroactive Interference - ANS ✓the tendency of later learning to hinder the memory of previously learned material. Proactive Interference - ANS ✓the tendency of previously learned material to hinder subsequent learning. Amnesia - ANS ✓forgetting large "chunks" of information Three types: Infantile amnesia Retrograde amnesia Anterograde amnesia
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Do non-human animals use reasoning skills similar to those employed by humans? Premack and Gillian Transitive Interference Study - ANS ✓Premack and Gillian - Transitive Inference study If A < B and B < C, then A must be < C Phase I: Taught Chimps A < B < C < D < E Only two chimps solved this What are animals learning? Option 1: Learning one rule: always pick greater one Option 2: Learning four rules: when A and B, pick B; when B and C; pick C, etc. Phase II: Testing - give B v. D, which do they choose?
- Never given this pairing before. If they are learning specific rules, then will not know which to choose
- If learning one rule, then should choose D. Results: Chimps choose D Do non-human animals use reasoning skills similar to those employed by humans? Premack and Gillian Perceptual Analogy Study - ANS ✓Sarah - smart chimp with language abilities; could solve perceptual analogies with 85% accuracy Do non-human animals use reasoning skills similar to those employed by humans? Premack and Gillian - Conceptual Analogy study - ANS ✓Sarah could solve conceptual analogies with 83% accuracy Is language unique to humans? (Behaviorist vs Linguist View) - ANS ✓Behaviorists:
- Skinner argued that the principles of S-R learning can account for the acquisition of language.
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- Non-human organisms may learn language if they are sufficiently intelligent and have "language-learning" experiences. Linguists:
- Many argue that the cognitive skills necessary to acquire language are unique to humans
- Noam Chomsky - linguistic abilities depends on certain innate neural modules that have evolved only in humans. What is language? - ANS ✓Sounds/symbols that "stand in" for objects, ideas, actions, emotions, etc. Productive use of symbols to communicate and express thoughts (not just reflexive response) Grammar and syntax (word order) Hays/Kelloggs (Early Language Studies w/ Primates) - ANS ✓Tried to get chimps to learn to speak Chimps do not have anatomy that allows them to produce human speech Gardeners - Trained Washoe in sign language (Early Language Studies w/ Primates) - ANS ✓Learned 150 words Could use 5 word strings No concept of syntax Did not use language productively Signs were difficult to interpret Experimenter bias Patterson - Trained Koko the Gorilla in sign language (Early Language Studies w/ Primates) - ANS ✓Exposed to spoken English and sign language Knew more than 1000 signs; could understand more than 20 00
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Positive Punishment - ANS ✓Response leads to aversive stimulation Positive Contingency (R-> aversive outcome) Results in a decrease in responding Similarity between Negative Reinforcement and Positive Punishment - ANS ✓Subjects are changing how they respond to minimize exposure to the aversive stimulus. Avoidance Learning: Theoretical explanations (history) - ANS ✓Historically - behaviorists (Hull, Thorndike, Skinner) have a hard time explaining learning in terms of the "non-occurrence" of a reinforcer Two-Factor Theory - ANS ✓There are two processes that underlie avoidance learning
- Classical Conditioning of fear to signal- Tone paired with Shock; Tone - > Fear
- Operant Response to escape the signal (and stop the fear)- Tone - > Fear->Press Lever - > Fear reduction According to two-factor theory, subjects do NOT make the response to avoid shock. Subjects respond to turn off (escape) the stimulus that has become associated with shock Evidence for Two-Factor Theory - ANS ✓Miller Experiment - if there are two factors, then we should be able to manipulate them independently. Phase I: Grp 1: White box - >shock; Grp 2: no training Phase II: Place each subject in white box (they can turn wheel to escape)Results: Only Grp 1 learns to turn wheel to escape (only group motivated to escape)
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Evidence against Two-factor Theory - ANS ✓Kamin Experiment Four groups: Grp 1: Normal avoidance learning (tone press lever stops tone and no shock occurs) Grp 2: Signal termination (tone press lever stops tone, but shock still occurs) Grp 3: US avoidance (tone press lever tone continues, but no shock occurs) Grp 4: Pure classical conditioning (tone press lever tone continues and shock occurs) Two-factor Theory predicts: Grps 1 and 2 should learn to press the lever Grps 3 and 4 should not learn to press the lever Actual Results: Grp 1 Learns to press lever consistently when exposed to tone. Grps 2 and 3 learn to press lever some times. Grp 4 does not learn to press lever Extinction Problem: After avoidance learning is obtained, Subjects are making the response reliably and avoiding aversive stimulation. Two-factor theory would predict that the fear to the signal would eventually extinguish, however the avoidance response never extinguishes even after hundreds of trials New Theory (Avoidance Theory) - ANS ✓A = signal (tone) X = Response (lever press)+ = shock; - = no shock Avoidance training procedure: A+ (Tone shock) AX- (Tone lever press no shock)
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Give anxiety-producing drugs to rats - they show LH (even without any prior exposure to shock) LH rats are more susceptible to developing tumours and have trouble fighting off disease. Therapy and Immunization Experiments - ANS ✓LH subjects can learn to escape shock if they are shown how to escape Prior exposure to escapable shock protects subjects from developing LH later on Species-Specific Defensive Reaction Theory - ANS ✓Premise 1: Aversive stimuli elicit innate, species-specific defensive responses (SSDRs) Premise 2: Which SSDR is elicited depends on the situation and configuration of the environment. Evidence: SSDRs are more easily learned in an avoidance paradigm than other behavioural responses. Predatory Imminence Continuum Theory - ANS ✓Premise 3: Which SSDR is elicited depends on the level of danger faced by the animal. Premise 4: A signal (CS) associated with an aversive event (US) will elicit an SSDR Prediction: The delay (time) between the CS and US will determine which SSDR will occur. Example: If CS and US are presented close together during training, then the CS will elicit an SSDR typically shown when the animal is in imminent danger. If there is a longer delay between the CS and US during training, then the CS will elicit an SSDR typically shown when the animal is preparing for danger (danger not imminent).
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Predatory Imminence Continuum Theory: Predatory imminence and the Brain - ANS ✓More danger perceived - more activation of limbic brain areas (e.g., amygdala) PTSD patients - amygdala activation even when no imminent threat Does punishment actually work to decrease responding? - ANS ✓It will if employed correctly Factors that affect punishment: - ANS ✓1. Punishment results in a decrease in responding - therefore, you can only observe punishment's effects by studying a behavior that is, initially, likely to occur.
- Initial exposure to punishment determines responses to later punishment: Start strong - If you severely punish a response on trial one, then the response will not be performed again. Start weak - If you slightly punish a response on trial one, then you will likely see recurrence, even if you increase punishment severity later on.
- If the aversive stimulus is/is not presented contingent on the target response. Contingency is necessary (only receive the aversive stimulus when making the response)4. Interval between target response and aversive stimulus. If you wait too long between the response and application of the aversive stimulus, no learning will occur.
- Differing schedules of punishment Some schedules lead to better reduction in responding than others.
- Whether "bad" behavior is otherwise reinforced in a positive fashion - it will reverse the effects. Example: speeding (don't always get caught and you get to your destination faster). Memory Mechanisms Overview - ANS ✓The study of animal behavior that focuses on the mechanisms by which animals acquire, process, store, and act on information from the environment
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Episodic Memory - ANS ✓- form of reference memory; recall episodes and experiences from the past Semantic Memory - ANS ✓- form of reference memory; recall facts and meanings of words Working Memory - ANS ✓- short-term memory Working memory v. Reference Memory - ANS ✓Working memory - the retention of information just long enough to complete a task. Ex: which spices have you already put into the stew. Reference memory - stored memory information that can be recalled to help use new information. Ex: recall what spices look like; how they taste; where they are kept when making a stew Delayed-Matching-To-Sample (procedures and variations) - ANS ✓Procedure: Sample-> Choice task Variations Length of exposure to the sample stimulus Duration of the retention interval Appearance of sample stimulus Other things about the sample stimulus
