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Adolescence
Chapter 3
The Biological Context of Development
Adolescents change the body of children for those of adults-complete with a full set of emotions. Let’s look at the journey into maturity through the body-> Endocrine System It is a network of glands and hormones, which regulate the changes of puberty. It triggers the onset of puberty then shuts it down-Thermostat. This biological thermostat regulates delicate changes within the body that transform immature sexual organs into those capable of sexual reproduction. It is responsible for growth in height to the growth of ones nose. Changes will take place in height, weight, and body contour. Puberty involves a surge of growth that brings adolescents eye to eye with their parents. Inches are added in a single year at the peak of their growth. Sex differences become noticeable->Girls->add subcutaneous (situated or lying under the skin) fat. Boys->add muscle mass. Not all adolescents grow the same amount, or at the same rate. Nor do they start at the same age. Different parts of the body mature at different rates. Factors Which Influence Rate of Growth These factors include diet, exercise, psychological stress, & attitudes. Other factors include genetic inheritance. The growth spurt ends in sexual dimorphism : physical differences between sexually mature females and males. Changes during puberty can have far-reaching psychological and social effects Puberty->brings heightened emotionality; changes in experiences of themselves; change in the relationship with their parents. It introduces questions about what it means to be masculine or feminine (gender). Androgyny: having both characteristics. Staying the same when your peers are changing can be stressful as going through the change itself (early and late maturers). Adolescents take a new look at themselves. Some like what they see and others are not so sure.
The Endocrine System (What is Happening to my Body?) Is consists of glands within the body that produces hormones (chemical messages that travel through the bloodstream) and structures in the central nervous system that regulates their activity. It is part of a larger feedback system that controls the timing of puberty. Hormones increase during late childhood. A dramatic rise in sex hormones and in the hormones that govern their release occur in early adolescence. The action of these hormones is part of a complex chain of events that trigger the onset of puberty. Sex Hormones Males: Androgens->tissues that form the male reproductive organs are more sensitive to androgens Females: Estrogens-> tissues that form the male reproductive organs are more sensitive to estrogens. Progesterone: plays an important part in the female menstrual cycle and forms the basis for androgens which can be converted into estrogens. Hormonal Activity (Difficult to study) As hormonal production increases, the sensitivity of the tissues they stimulate also changes. Individual differences in adolescents also complicates the study of hormonal action. The effectiveness of hormones depends on many things besides the sensitivity of different tissues to their action. Also important are the levels at which hormones in bound or unbound form. Hormones are molecules that act by attaching themselves to receptor sites on target tissues. The Timing of Puberty This timing is connected to centers within the brain tucked beneath the cortex (the gray matter), a few inches behind the bridge of the nose. The most important center in puberty is the hypothalamus. It serves as a control center for biological rhythms. The pituitary, an endocrine gland, hangs from the hypothalamus by a slender stalk (the infundibulum). The pituitary has two lobes, or sections… Anterior (front) Lobe: close to the nose Posterior (back) Lobe The hypothalamus secretes a hormone called gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which tells the anterior pituitary to manufacture gonodotrophic hormones, which act directly on the gonads. Gonads: are the sex glands-> Ovaries (females); Testes (males)
About 1-½ years before the growth spurt, girls’ legs start to grow faster than their bodies, giving them a long, leggy look. The shoulders also widen before the actual growth spurt. Somewhat later during puberty, the hips widen. Males->the growth spurt begins anywhere from age 10 ½ to age 16; boys grow for a longer time than girls; reaching their peak rate in growth 2 years later than girls; boys add 12-13 inches during the growth spurt; most of this increase is due to the length of the trunk. Males show a dramatic increase in muscle mass and also develop larger hearts and lungs (Some sports are better for males while other are better for females). Males have higher systolic blood pressure, can carry more oxygen in their blood, and can dispose of the chemical by-products of exercise more efficiently than females. Males have more red blood cells. The Reproductive System Females-> see page 93 During puberty, the uterus, ovaries, and vagina all increase in size. The uterus is enclosed at the neck of the cervix, which opens into the vagina. The uterus holds the fetus during pregnancy. The length of the uterus doubles during puberty, growing to about 3 inches at maturity. The ovaries flank either side of the uterus. The have two major functions. The first is to house the immature eggs, or ova, which each infant girl stores from birth. The second function is to produce estrogen and progesterone. The fallopian tubes feed into either side of the uterus from the ovaries. Each tube is about 4 inches long and is lined with tiny hairs called cilia that moves in a sweeping motion and set up currents within the fluid in the tubes. These currents catch the mature egg as it is released from the ovary and sweep into the oviduct, where it is carried to the uterus. Fertilization-> occurs if live sperm are present which would take place at the top of the oviduct. If not, the egg passes outside the body alone with the lining of the uterus, which is prepared monthly fro a fertilized egg. The Vagina-> is a muscular tube leading to the uterus. During puberty it grows to adult length, about 4-6 inches. Bartholin’s Glands->Two glands on either side of the vagina. These glands secrete a lubricant during sexual arousal. The walls of the vagina touch each other. The vagina is closed off at the inner end by a tight, muscular gate, the cervix. The opening of the vagina is partially covered by a fold of skin called the hymen (cherry). It is torn or strength during childbirth. The clitoris is the primary source of sexual stimulation. It becomes erects during arousal.
Males-> see page 95 The epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostrate gland, and Cowper’s gland form internal male sex organs. The epididymis, is a long, oval mass sitting near the top of each testis that receives the sperm produced by the testis. The epididymis, leads into the vas deferens, long, coiled tubes that carry the sperm to the seminal vesicles where they are stored. Both the seminal vesicles and the prostrate gland produce semen in which the sperm, a milky white fluid, are suspended. The fluid is ejaculated (200,000,000 sperm) during an orgasm. The prostrate gland develops around age 11, at the time the testes start to develop. Sperm can be found in the urine of boys by about age 14. The Cowper’s glands begin to mature at about the same time as the prostrate. These glands secrete a lubricating fluid that facilitates passage of the sperm through the urethra and also protects them from the acidic environment of the urethra. The fluid appears at the opening of the glans of the penis during sexual arousal and contains some sperm. At puberty, increases in FSH, LH, and prolactin stimulate the testes to develop and produce testosterone. The combination of testosterone and FSH stimulate the testes to produce sperm. Sperm may take 3 weeks to travel the length of the congested epididymis; during this time they continue to mature. The penis is the primary source of sexual stimulation. It has three major parts: the glans, the shaft, and the prepuce. The glans, or rounded head of the penis, is the most sensitive (nerve endings). The shaft of the penis is filled with spongy pads of erectile tissue surrounding the urethra, the canal for urine and semen. During sexual arousal, blood fills cavities within the tissues, causing the penis to become hard and erect. Erection occurs throughout infancy and childhood and is triggered by many forms of stimulation (washing, need to urinate, etc). The penis doubles in length and thickness during puberty, to 3-4 inches. Adolescence express concern about the size of their penis (belief that the size is related to masculinity and sexual prowess. The prepuce, foreskin is a thin fold of skin that covers the glans of the penis. The scrotum is the sac that hangs just beneath the penis and houses the testes, the two glands that produce sperm and testosterone. Testes start to grow about age 11 and more than double in length during puberty. Testes are about the same size but the left testis appears larger (hangs a bit lower).
The Secular Trend Evidence indicates that puberty begins earlier today than it did in the past; they also grow faster; adolescents grow to be larger than they once did, girls grow half an inch to an inch taller than their mothers and weigh about 2 pounds more. A number of conditions have contributed to this trend: nutrition; get bigger sooner. The Psychological and Social Implications of Puberty With biological changes, puberty, adolescents look to reading the reaction of friends and family for the meaning of the changes they are going through. To them there must be an explanation for what is going on in the environment. Puberty affects adolescents’ closest relationships in intimate ways. Even the simplest of activities are often suffused with emotion. When these activities involve more one member of the family, are rarely experienced in the same way by each of them. Result: we continually interpret our experiences, putting events together in ways that make sense to us, constructing the reality to which we eventually respond. Heightened Emotionality Tensions are greatest in early adolescence. As adolescence bodies assume more adult proportions, those around them expect them to behave in more adult ways. Stressors: attending Middle School (Why?); relationships with peers; redefining relationships with parents; experiment with sex and drugs (adolescents can be as young as 10 or 11). Reactions to these Changes-> stereotype : adolescents begin to act moody; or is it a stereotype?; their emotions swing from one extreme to another with little predictability. Adolescents report a wide range of emotions: feeling great, happy, cheerful, proud, accepted, in love, friendly, kindly or lonely, awkward, ignored, and nervous. They feel self- conscious and embarrassed; bored; tired, weak, have less energy. These differing inner realities, as well as the more visible differences of their exterior lives, virtually ensure that misunderstandings with parents will arise (understanding is the key to effectively dealing with them). Relationships with Parents Good relationships with parents can provide a powerful buffer against the stresses of life. When parents are warm and loving->adolescents experience fewer emotional and behavioral problems; emotional harmony in the home could affect rate of physical development; especially with the father. The intensity of conflict increases with the onset of puberty.
Adolescents begin to demand a greater roles in family decision making and more freedom in areas that their parents still believe require parental oversight; well-being. Parents are not sure how they should discipline or provide guidance to their adolescents. Most of the studies have involved white, middle class families. Hispanic Boys-> puberty actually brought parents and sons closer together; reported greater emotional support from parents. The increased closeness may reflect the value Hispanic families place on the traditional male role. Hispanic girls did not experience a comparable improvement in their relationship with their parents (sex differences). Gender Stereotypes: The Meaning of Masculine and Feminine Gender stereotypes are the cultural expectations concerning which behaviors are appropriate for each sex. These stereotypes play an important role in self definition as adolescents integrate questions posed by their sexuality into their developing sense of themselves-What does it mean to be an adult male or female? Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) is an instrument that assesses the attitudes of individuals concerning what it is to be masculine or feminine in our society. Can adolescents give answers that are consistent with what is expected? Masculine Gender Role (Based on the culture) Male Expectations->self-reliant, self-sufficient, defend their beliefs, make decisions, take a stand, be leaders, sexual risk takers. (Components of gender stereotypes are often polar opposites of each other where qualities such as affection, tenderness, sensitivity, have been regulated to females). Males seek physical satisfaction rather than emotional closeness from their sexual encounter. (Never tell her you love her). Female Gender Role (Based on the culture) Female Expectations->they are expected to be in touch with their emotions, sensitive to the feeling of others, affectionate, understanding, warm, and render (signs of maturity); dependent, passive, childlike. Sexual Encounters->motivated more by a desire for emotional closeness than for physical pleasure. Do men use this against women? Discussion->Gender Stereotypes: Myths or Truth Androgyny: adolescents have more latitude in fashioning their gender role today than they had in previous generations. What has changes? Androgyny allows adolescents to tailor- make a gender role instead of having to select one off the rack.
with whom they feel comfortable discussing the changes they are experiencing. In general, early maturers have more negative attitudes concerning menstruation, poorer body image, and more eating problems (heavier in a culture than values thinness). The Deviance Hypothesis->an explanation of the psychological effects of timing and how it occurs by changing adolescents’ status relative to their peers; they become deviants (early maturing girls are most deviant; late maturing boys are next). The Stage Termination Hypothesis->early maturers do not have as much time as others adolescents to complete the developmental tasks of middle childhood. This hypothesis predicts more difficulty for those facing the demands of adolescence first. The Adult Status Hypothesis->suggests that the advantages or disadvantages of early and late maturation depend on the status that awaits adolescents when they become adults. Adult males usually enjoy a higher status in society than females. Maturity does not move females into positions of leadership, financial independence, or physical prowess. Body Image Is there something you would change about your body if you could. Why? Early Maturing Boys->have more positive body images; opposite for girls Later Maturers feel more positive about their bodies and more attractive than early maturers. How satisfied adolescents are with their bodies depend a lot on how others react to them. Adolescents’ self image reflect the attitudes of others, or their perceptions of these attitudes, as well as their own evaluation of how attractive a particular trait may be. Body images are reflected by social mirrors and always capture comparisons with others. Physical changes contribute heavily to adolescents’ senses of themselves (body changes in so many ways during adolescence). Self-images are strongly tied to their body images in both sexes. How satisfied adolescents are with their bodies roughly predicts their level of self-esteem, especially for girls. In general boys have more positive body images than girls. Girls tend to be critical of the way they look, believing themselves to be heavier than they are wanting to be thinner. Boys are more content with their appearance, wanting to be more muscular. Fitting a new body image into a sense of self is an important developmental task of early adolescence, and more girls experience difficulty than boys. Girls have lower self-esteem and are more self-conscious than boys. African American girls view their bodies quite differently that European American girls do.
Eating Disorders Some adolescents mistake the natural changes of maturation for unwanted fat, and diet to regain their former shape. Others, perhaps unsure whether they are ready for adulthood, attempt to delay its appearance by literally starving themselves. Still others turn to food when stressed and become obese (pleasure foods). Dieting Girls believe they are too fat so they diet. This is not an eating disorder. Boys are untroubled by their weight. The cultural message is to be thin (for women). TV, magazines. Adolescent females today face a standard of beauty that is considerably thinner than in the past. Bulimia and Anorexia Both are more common among females than males. Bulimia -> is characterized by binge eating: consuming large amounts of food in a short time, usually in less than 2 hours. Usually accompanied by the fear that one cannot stop oneself and are followed by self-deprecating thoughts. They tend to be done in secret and usually end only because abdominal pain or falling asleep. Most bulimics are aware that their eating patterns are abnormal, and most make continued attempts to lose weight through highly restrictive diets, self-induced vomiting, and use of laxatives or diuretics. They are rarely fat. Many bulimics start with a an initial anorexic phase. Likely to live with the disorder a number of years before receiving help. During that time they suffer physical as well as emotional symptoms, such as fatigue, weakness, and constipation. Dental caries and erosion of the enamel of the teeth are also common from frequent contact with stomach acids through self-induced vomiting. Bulimics often have low self-esteem and a history of depression. They feel self-conscious around others, be sensitive to rejection, have difficulty expressing their feelings directly Anorexia ->is a disorder in which individuals severely limit their intake of food, dieting to the point of actual starvation. Anorexics can be apathetic and irritable. Due to the lost of body fat, anorexics frequently become amenorrheic , ceasing to have menstrual periods. Anorexics are excessively thin, frequently losing 25% of their body weight. Anorexics engage in binging and purging. Anorexics deny they have any problem and reject help. Among HS students, approximately 5% become bulimic; percentage of anorexics is even smaller. Anorexia is more common in young adolescents; bulimia is more common in older adolescents and young women. Anorexics have a distorted body image and are not likely to seek help even when they become emaciated through self-starvation.
The success of a weight control program for adolescents almost always depends on successfully integrating the family into the treatment program. Obesity is often a system of underlying conflicts within the family. http://www.coe.iup.edu/briscoe/edsp373/Chapter3.doc
