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Biological Anthropology Exam 1 Study Guide | ANTH 021, Study notes of Introduction to Cultural Anthropology

Pennsylvania State University - AbingtonIntroduction to Cultural Anthropology
Prof. Jessica Ly Westin

Biological Anthropology Exam 1 Study Guide Material Type: Notes; Professor: Westin; Class: Introductory Biological Anthropology; Subject: Anthropology; University: Penn State - Main Campus; Term: Fall 2010;

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1. History of Evolutionary Thought
a. What is anthropology?
The study of human form in all its kinds
b. What are the four major subfields of anthropology?
Biological anthropology
Cultural anthropology
Linguistic anthropology
Archaeology
c. What is biological anthropology? What are some of the subfields of
biological anthropology?
The study of the interaction between biology and culture, which
plays a role in most human traits.
Subfields:
oPaleoanthropology: the study of the fossil record of
ancestral humans and their primate skin
oskeletal biology and osteology: the study of the skeleton
opaleopathology: the study of the diseases in the ancestral
human population
oforensic anthropology: the study of human remains applied
to a legal context
oprimatology: the study of the nonhuman primates and their
anatomy, genetics, behavior, and ecology
ohuman biology: subfield of biological anthropology dealing
with human growth and development, adaptation to the
environmental extremes, and human genetics
d. What is the scientific method? How would you design an experiment
using the scientific method?
Standard scientific research procedure in which a hypothesis is
stated, data are collected to test it, and the hypothesis is either
supported or refuted
Steps of the scientific method:
1) pose a question and conduct background research
(observation)
2) formulate a hypothesis
3) test hypothesis- attempt to falsify systematically collect and
analyze data
4) interpret results – support or refute hypothesis
5) recommend more tests
e. What is a theory? What is a hypothesis? What is the difference?
Theory: general principle supported by substantial evidence
Hypothesis: working explanation that leads to testable predictions
f. Know Darwin’s contemporaries and predecessors and how the
prevailing paradigm shifted over time to lead Darwin and Wallace to
the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
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Download Biological Anthropology Exam 1 Study Guide | ANTH 021 and more Study notes Introduction to Cultural Anthropology in PDF only on Docsity!

  1. History of Evolutionary Thought a. What is anthropology?  The study of human form in all its kinds b. What are the four major subfields of anthropology?  Biological anthropology  Cultural anthropology  Linguistic anthropology  Archaeology c. What is biological anthropology? What are some of the subfields of biological anthropology?  The study of the interaction between biology and culture, which plays a role in most human traits.  Subfields: o Paleoanthropology: the study of the fossil record of ancestral humans and their primate skin o skeletal biology and osteology: the study of the skeleton o paleopathology: the study of the diseases in the ancestral human population o forensic anthropology: the study of human remains applied to a legal context o primatology: the study of the nonhuman primates and their anatomy, genetics, behavior, and ecology o human biology: subfield of biological anthropology dealing with human growth and development, adaptation to the environmental extremes, and human genetics d. What is the scientific method? How would you design an experiment using the scientific method?  Standard scientific research procedure in which a hypothesis is stated, data are collected to test it, and the hypothesis is either supported or refuted  Steps of the scientific method: 1) pose a question and conduct background research (observation) 2) formulate a hypothesis 3) test hypothesis- attempt to falsify systematically collect and analyze data 4) interpret results – support or refute hypothesis 5) recommend more tests e. What is a theory? What is a hypothesis? What is the difference?  Theory: general principle supported by substantial evidence  Hypothesis: working explanation that leads to testable predictions f. Know Darwin’s contemporaries and predecessors and how the prevailing paradigm shifted over time to lead Darwin and Wallace to the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

 Archbishop James Ussher: o calculated the date of the creation of Earth using the only evidence of the age of Earth available to him; the Old Testament and the Bible  Carolus Linnaeus o Systema Naturae- classification of plants/animals o Illustrated God’s (fixed) plan (included humans) o Inventor of modern taxonomy o Bionomial Nomenclature o Not intended as evolutionary relationships o Humans are animals, animals can be grouped by common features  Georges Buffon o Migratory animals change in response to new environments o Life is dynamic, creations change  Georges Cuvier ( Catastrophism) o Extinctions through catastrophism  Natural catastrophies wiped out local animals and plants, which were replaced by migrants or successive creation events o Thus he avoided the ude of evolution while still explaining the fossil period o Extinctions occur (catastrophism)  Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (Inheritance of Aquired Characteristics) o First to propose a mechanism biological change o Was wrong (elephant trunk example – earliest ancestor possessed a short trunk, yet through continued stretching of the trunk to obtain food, it grew longer and longer. Ensuing generations possessed longer trunks) o Species adapt to changing environment  Hutton and Lyell (Uniformatarianism) o Geological processes impacting the natural world today that occurred in the past o Cast doubt on the young age of the earth o Earth is very old  Thomas Malthus o Essay on the Principle of Population without resource (food) limitations, there would be no limit to human population groth o Population growth outstrips food and other resources o Leads to a struggle for existence competition for limited resources

 Gametes: o The sex cells: sperm in males and eggs (or ova) in females d. How is DNA constructed? What are the important elements?  Double helix  Nucleotide o Phosphate unit sugar molecule nitrogen base o Adenine and thymine, guanine and cytosine  Codon: 5 nitrogen bases in a row e. What are nucleotides? How do they pair?  Molecular building block of nucleic acids DNA and RNA; consists of a phosphate, and a base o Purines: adenine and guanine o Pyrimidines: cytosine and thymine f. Chromosomes

  1. How many homologous pairs of chromosomes do humans have? What characterizes homologous chromosomes?  23 homologous pairs of chromosomes  Homologous = always the same length
  2. What is a diploid number? What is a haploid number?  Diploid number:  Full complement of paired chromosomes in a somatic cell.  Haploid number:  The number of chromosomes found in a gamete, representing one from each pair found in a diploid somatic cell. In humans, the haploid number is 23.
  3. What types of cells are diploid? What types are haploid?  Somatic cells = diploid  Sex cells = haploid
  4. What is an autosome? What is a sex chromosome?  Autosome: o Any of the chromosomes other than the sex chromosomes  Sex Chromosome: o In mammals, chromosomes X and Y, with XX producing females and XY producing male g. How does DNA replication work? What happens if a replication mistake is made?
  5. The DNA molecule (or a portion of it) divides into two separate strands. The two strands can be separated when the weak hydrogen bonds between the base pairs are broken.
  1. After separation, each of the strands serves as a template for the assembly, nucleotide by nucleotide, of a new complementary strand of DNA.
  2. Left with two copies of the mother DNA molecule, each of which is made up of one original side and one newly synthesized side.  Mistake = can lead to permanent changes in the DNA of cell (Mutations) o Can transform a cell, causing it to replicate at an accelerated rate (cancer) o Mutations that occur in gametes can be passed fro one generation to the next and may have profound effects on the biology of offspring. h. How does the DNA “recipe” get translated into protein?
  3. What are trascription and translation?
  4. Why do we say that the codons are redundant?
  5. What is the difference between DNA and RNA? i. What are the differences among silent, beneficial, and deleterious mutations?  Silent: o Different base but not different protein redundancy  Beneficial: o Fuel for natural selection  Deleterious: o Protein is not made or doesn’t work j. What is a point mutation? A frame-shift mutation?  Point mutation: o Change in 1 base  Frame-shift mutation: o Addition or deletion of base k. What is an example of a point mutation (from lecture)?
  1. Meiosis and Protein Synthesis a. What is mitosis? What is its functions?  Mitosis: o Somatic cell division o Interphase (before mitosis) Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase  Functions: o Basis of all cell proliferation, which can occur when an organism grows, during healing, or during any physiological process in which new cells are needed to replace the loss of cells b. What is the outcome of meiosis? How does this compare to mitosis?  Meiosis: gametes

o Masks or hides expression of the recessive allele  Recessive: o Expressed only when there are two couples  Homozygote: o Having the same allele as the loci for a gene on both members of a pair of homologous chromosomes (or autsomes)  Heterozygote: o Having two different alleles at the loci for a gene of a pair of homologous chromosomes (or autosomes) h. How are mtDNA and ancient DNA used in biological anthropology research?  mtDNA: o useful for looking at evolutionary patterns between closely related species or even between populations within a single species  ancient DNA: o find out how old something is i. What is the human genome project?  Completed 2003 (13 yrs)  Sequence of 3 billion nitrogen bases of human DNA  Identification of genes, especially diseases  Gene therapy potential

  1. Mendelian Genetics a. Who was Gregor Mendel? What was his contribution to our understanding of genetics?  Gregor: o Laws of Heredity in 1866; experiments on peas  Contributions: o Inheritance is particular o Dominant and recessive – recessive traits “disappear” in one generation to reappear in the next o Segregation – genes separate during meiosis and pair up again upon fertilization o Independent assortment – genes for different traits assort independently during gamete formation b. What are Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance? When is the Law of Independence Assortment violated? 1) Heredity characteristics are controlled by particulate unit factors that exist in pairs of individual organisms
  1. When an individual has two different unit factors responsible for a characteristic, only one is expressed and is said to be dominant to the other, which is said to be recessive
  2. During the formation of gametes, the paired unit factors separate, or segregate, randomly so that each sex call receives one or the other with equal likelihood
  3. During gamete formation, segregating pairs of unit factor assort independently of each other (law of independent assortment)
  1. Applies only to genes that are on different chromosomes. Because the chromosome is the unit of transmission in meiosis, genes that are on the same chromosome should segregate together and find themselves in the same sex cells (linkage) c. What are some examples of discrete/Mendelian traits?  Discrete traits: o (controlled by one locus) Dominant: need 1 copy. Recessive: need 2 copies d. Be able to make a Punnett Square given one or two traits (think about the pea experiement) e. Know how to read a pedigree f. What are autosomal traits? What is a sex-linked trait?  Autosomal traits: o Traits that are not sex-linked  Sex-linked traits: o >880 sex-linked traits, most on X chromosome g. How do dominant disorders differ from recessive disorder in a pedigree? What about sex-linked disorders? Which sex is more likely to be afflicted with a sex-linked disorder? Why?  Dominant Disorders: o Affected individuals are heterozygous; one affected parent- about ½ kids affected  Recessive Disorders: o Affected individuals are homozygous recessive; two unaffected carriers can have affected offspring-about ¼ offspring affected  Sex more likely to be afflicted with a sex-liked disorder: male o Because human males have only one copy of the X chromosome, they are more susceptible to a host of diseases that are caused by mutations in the X chromosome genes. o They are much less common in females because they are essentially autosomal recessive disorders and will appear in a female only when they are present in two copies
  2. Patterns of Inheritance & Forces of Evolution

 Stabilizing selection: o Selection that maintains a certain phenotype by selecting against deviations from it i. What is a heterozygous advantage? How does this work with sickle cell anemia?  Heteros are resistant to malaria. 

  1. Population Genetics & Modern Variation a. What is a population? What is a gene pool?  Population: o Group of potentially interbreeding organisms  Gene pool: o Genes shared by reproductive members of a population b. What are the assumptions of Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium?  Assumption: 1) Population is infinitely large (no drift) 2) Random mating (no drift) 3) No mutation 4) No gene flow 5) No natural selection (i.e. no evolution) c. Know how to determine allele frequencies (remember p + q = 1) d. Know how to determine genotype frequencies (remember p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1) e. What do p and q represent? What do p2,^ 2pq, and q^2 represent?  P = frequency of dominant allele  Q = frequency of recessive f. What might it mean if we determine that a population is not a Hardy- Weinberg Equilibrium?  An evolutionary force is at work in the population g. What are the different time frames of phenotypic response to environmental stimuli?  h. What is polymorphism?  Genetic trait whose locus has >1 allele in a population at a measurable frequency i. What is a maternal-fetal incompatibility?  Occurs when the mother produces antibodies against an antigen expressed in the fetus that she does not possess j. What is biocultural evolution?  Interaction of human cultural environments and biology 1) What are the biological and cultural aspects of sickle cell disease? How did these evolve? o
  1. What are the biological and cultural aspects of lactose intolerance? How did these evolve? o Without lactase, lactose ferments, causes stomach upset, and malabsorption of calcium
  1. Human Adaptation a. What factors can influence human phenotypic variation?  Genetics, culture, and environment b. What is a cline? What phenotypic traits in humans are clinically distributed?  Cline: o The distribution of an allele or phenotypic trait across geographical space  The distribution of blood c. What are the main selective pressures regarding human skin color? In what environments do they have an impact? What disorders result from having a mismatch between skin color and the environment?  Environment  Sunlight exposure d. How have humans adapted to various environments? 1) Hot climates? Know both biological and cultural aspects  Sweating  Air co 2) Cold climates? Know both biological and cultural aspects  Shiver  Heaters 3) High altitude? Distinguish developmental aspects from short- term acclimations  Increased heart and breathing rate  Increased red blood cells e. What are Bergman’s and Allen’s rules?  Berg: Stipulates that body size is larger in colder climates to conserve body temperature  Allen: stipulates that in warmer climates, the limbs of the body are larger relative to body size to dissipate body heat f. How does humidity affect nasal shape? g. What other human attributes relate to environmental pressures and natural selection?