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BIOL121 Syllabus Palm Cards-
OT Test Set
Chem- Elements - Answer - Made of only one type of atom w/ same number of protons
- Elements have their own characteristic physical and chemical properties
- Simplest substance Chem- Molecules - Answer - General term used to describe two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds.
- Element or compound Roles of H, K, Na, C, Ca, Fe - Answer - H: component of all organic compounds
- Na: fluid balance, nervous impulse, main extracellular cation
- K: nervous impulses, main intracellular cation
- C: principle element in organic compounds
- Ca: muscle contraction, nervous impulses, blood coagulation, bones and teeth
- Fe: component of haemoglobin
- O: cellular respiration
- N: compounds of amines, amino acids and nucleic acid
- P: component of ATP
- S: found in proteins
- Cl: principle extracellular anion
- Mg: cofactor for enzymes Anions - Answer - Negative
- Gain elec Cations - Answer - Positive
- Lose elec Macromolecules - Answer - Proteins: structure, haemoglobin
- Carbohydrates: ATP, glucose
- Lipids/fats: energy storage, phospholipids
- Nucleic acid (building blocks of genes): inherited genetic material, DNA/RNA
- Functions: · Structure/form work · Storage · Messengers · Control pH and body systems - Answer - Inside and outside of cell are pH balanced to ensure homeostasis
- Abnormal pH can damage cells and tissues disrupting body functions (break bonds, change shape of biological molecule, alter cellular functions
- Buffer takes or releases H+ ions, prevent large pH changes
- Blood pH 7.35-7. Cell - Answer - Group of atoms, molecules and organelles working together
- Basic unit of life
- Cell numbers vary in health and disease Cell membrane - Answer - Barrier: separate intracellular and extracellular fluid
- Gatekeeper: selectively permeable (solubility, size and charge)
- Communication: Receptor, work together, homeostasis
- Structural features o Phospholipids
- Hydrophilic phosphate heads
- Hydrophobic lipid tails o Proteins- integral
- Channels, gates or pumps
- Carrier proteins
- Receptors
- Anchoring proteins
Epithelial Tissue - Answer - Covers
- Functions: protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion
- Classified: shape and number of layers
- Transport and movement due to shape
- Location: lining GI tract organs, and other hollow organs, skin surfaces, mouth, pharynx, oesophagus Connective Tissue - Answer - Supports
- Functions: support and bind other tissues
- Classified by physical properties: connective tissue proper fluid connective tissue, supporting connective tissue
- Location: Fat/ soft padding tissue, bone, tendon, above diaphragm Muscle Tissue - Answer - Moves
- Function: contraction, control voluntary defecation and swallowing
- Types: skeletal, smooth, cardiac
- Location: cardiac, smooth, skeletal, mouth, pharynx, oesophagus Location and function of tissue membranes - Answer - Serous
- Cutaneous
- Mucous
- Synovial Serous membrane - Answer - Line body cavities closed to the exterior of the body
- Peritoneal, pleural and pericardial cavities Cutaneous membrane - Answer - Skin
- Covers body surface Mucous membrane - Answer - Line digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive tract
- Coated with secretions of mucous glands Synovial membrane - Answer - Line joint cavities
- Produce fluid within the joint Diffusion - Answer - Substances diffuse down their concentration gradient
- From high conc areas to low conc areas Osmosis - Answer - Region of high water conc to region of low water conc
- Diffusion of water across semi-permeable membrane Membrane Transport - Answer - Simple diffusion
- Facilitated diffusion
- Active transport
- Active and passive processes Simple diffusion - Answer - Movement of molecules directly through phospholipid bilayer, from high conc to low conc Facilitated diffusion - Answer - Movement from high to low conc via a channel or carrier protein, against gradient, no energy Active Transport - Answer - Movement from low to high conc, via carrier protein or channel, energy required Active and passive processes - Answer o Active: energy required, movement across membrane "against" conc gradient (low to high) o Passive: movement across membrane "down" conc gradient, no energy required (high to low) Movement of molecules - Answer - Semipermeable membrane: "leaky", allows ions and molecules
- Lipid soluble vs water soluble
- Charged vs uncharged molecules
- Solute
- Concentration gradient Lipid vs water soluble - Answer - Lipid soluble molecules pass through bilayer
- Water soluble molecules cannot cross through phospholipid bilayer. Charged vs uncharged molecules - Answer - Changed molecules cannot directly cross through the phospholipid bilayer Solute - Answer Concentration gradient - Answer - The steeper the concentration gradient, the faster the diffusion
- Most homeostatic mechanisms are neg feedback loops
- Used in conditions that need frequent adjustments
- E.g. thermoregulation and calcium control Body Organisation - Answer - Atomic:
- Molecular:
- Cellular: group of atoms, molecules and organelles working together, basic unit of life
- Tissue: group of similar cells working together
- Organ: group of different tissues working together, multitasking and specialist
- Organ system: group of atoms working together
- Organism: e.g. human Major components of each system- Integumentary - Answer - Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands Components- Nervous - Answer brain, spinal cord, nerves, special senses Components- Endocrine - Answer glands Components- Skeletal - Answer bone, cartilage joints, bone marrow Components- Muscular - Answer skeletal muscle Components- Respiratory - Answer lungs, airways Components- Cardiovascular - Answer heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels
Components- Immune - Answer bone marrow, lymphoid organs, thymus, spline
Components- Urinary - Answer kidneys, bladder, urinary tract
Components- digestive - Answer mouth, stomach, intestines, liver, gall bladder, pancreas
Components- reproductive - Answer - ovaries/testes, external genitalia, associated glands and ducts
Body Cavities - Answer - Where organ are suspended, bones and muscles
- 2 main cavities: Abdominal cavity and Thoracic cavity separated by diaphragm
- Closed sacks with fluid inside
- Different/ change size and shapes to allow organs to function
- Allow organs to expand and contract without disturbing other organs
Body cavities - Answer - Cranial cavity
- Vertebral cavity
- Superior mediastinum
- Pleural cavity
- Pericardial cavity
- Pelvic cavity
- Abdominopelvic cavity
Anatomical position - Answer - Standing erect head level and eyes facing forward, hands at side and palms forward legs parallel, feet flat on floor
- Common universal reference point for describing locations in the body
Superior - Answer - Top half
Inferior - Answer - Bottom half
Anterior/ Ventral - Answer towards front of body
Human chromosomes: - Answer - Number: 23 pairs
- Sex chromosomes: Special pair of chromosomes that determine sex: X or Y chromosome in humans.
- Autosomes: Chromosome other than the X or Y chromosome. 1-
Gene - Answer - Basic unit of heredity, passed from parent to child
- A portion of a DNA strand that functions as a hereditary unit, is located at a particular site on a specific chromone, and codes for a specific protein or polypeptide.
Phenotype - Answer - The physical appearance or observable traits of an organism. Often determined by the genetic makeup of an individual but environment can play a role.
Genotype - Answer - Genotype: the two alleles for the gene eg. BB or Bb
- Genetic makeup of an organism
Alelle - Answer - Any of several forms of a gene, usually arising through mutation, that are responsible for hereditary variation
Phenotype vs Genotype - Answer - Genotype is the genetic make up and phenotype is the physical characteristics
Homozygous and heterozygous - Answer - Homozygote: An individual carrying two identical alleles of a particular gene eg. AA or aa.
- Heterozygote: An individual carrying two different alleles of a particular gene eg. Aa.
Dominant vs recessive Alleles - Answer - When 2 alleles are different one may express the phenotype (dominate allele) thereby making expression of the recessive allele
- To express dominant trait only 1 dominant allele needs to be present (homozygous or heterozygous)
- To express a recessive trait there must be 2 recessive alleles
- Dominant allele written as a capital letter (B), recessive allele with a lower case letter (b)
Sex linked and autosomal alleles - Answer - When the disease allele is on the X chromosome it is sex-linked
- Most X-linked diseases are recessive alleles
- Males more commonly affected than females
- X and Y chromosomes shown in genotype for sex-linked diseases
Mitosis - Answer - Cell division: replaces somatic/body cells
- Principles: identical
- Location: body cells
- Results: grows tissue, replace body cells
Meiosis - Answer - Cell division: forms gametes in ovaries and testes
- Principles: non identical
- Location: gametes
- Results: provide gametes
- 4 daughter cells formed
Programmed death cells - Answer - Cells die off when no longer needed
- intracellular death program
Virus - Answer Not living No structure Protein capsule around DNA or RNA mutates billionth of a metre
· Asexual reproduction
- Eukaryote · Large- over 5 millionth of a metre · Multicellular · Organelles have membrane · Sexual reproduction
Bacteria- conditions - Answer - Temperature- most between 10oC- 39oC
- pH- close to neutral/ 7
- Oxygen · Obligate aerobes- can only grow in the presence of O · Obligate anaerobes- cannot grow in the presence of O · Facultative anaerobes +/- O
Bacteria impact - Answer
Normal flora role - Answer - our bodies in residence on various areas · bacteria- 10x more than human cells · resident flora · colonised/transient · hygiene
- Benefits · Skin- reduce pH · Oral and Vagina- competes and inhibits pathogens and yeasts · Intestine- Excrete antibacterial chemicals, Synthesise and secrete vitamins, stimulate local immunity
Normal flora opportunistic pathogen - Answer - Common causes of opportunistic infection- genetic predisposition, chemo, HIV, bone marrow disease, pregnancy
- Harmful effects · Competition for nutrients · Bacterial synergism- normal flora and pathogen · Endogenous disease- fever, inflammation ect. · Opportunistic infection- over growth, infection
Modes of transmission - Answer · Contact- direct or indirect · Vehicle- air, water, food · Vector- transfer of pathogens via an animal · Vector- Borne- animals and humans · Fomite-borne- transmission via an inanimate object · Vertical (transplacental)- intrauterine, postpartum
Chain of infection - Answer - Infectious agent -> reservoir-> portal of entry -> mode of transmission -> portal of exit -> susceptible host
Portals of entry and exit - Answer - Entry: site microbes enter the body
- Exit: path by which pathogens leave the host
Sterilisation, disinfection and sanitation - Answer · Sterilisation o destruction/ elimination of all microbes o Methods · Heat · Heat and pressure · Radiation
- Appendix
- Other lymphoid tissue
Thymus - Answer - Location: mediastinum
- Function: T cells mature here, makes thymosin hormones for development and maturation of T cells
Red bone marrow - Answer - Location: end of long bones, thin and flat bone
- Function: contains stem cells produce and matures B cells and make pre t-cells/ lymphocytes
Lymph nodes - Answer - Location: along lymphatic vessels
- Function: multiply lymphocytes and filter lymph
Spleen - Answer - Location: between diaphragm and stomach
- Function: stores and releases blood and blood cells, site of blood production in 2nd trimester pregnancy
Tonsils - Answer Diffuse lymphatic tissue
Appendix - Answer - Matures B-cells
Lymphocytes (B and T cells) - Answer - Third line defence
- B-cells: create antibodies
- T-cells: immune system response
Immunity - Answer - Being immune to an antigen
1st line defence - Answer - Keep every invader out the same way via chemical and physical barriers
Physical, chemical properties of skin and mucous membrane - Answer 1. Skin- epidermis, sebum sweat
- Mucous membranes- mucous and hair
- Fluids that help protect there surfaces
- Defecation, vomiting, coughing and sneezing
Protection of portal of entry to the body - Answer
2nd line defences - Answer - Act once microbes have entered the body
- Non-specific: all invaders attacked the same way
- Innate and born with
Antimicrobial substances - Answer - Interferon interferes with viral replication and activates immune cells · Made by infected host cells and WBC · Effective against bacteria as well
- Complement is a set of plasma proteins that complements all aspects of the immune system · Promote phagocytosis and cell lysis
- Discourage microbial growth, 4 main types are interferons complement, iron-binding proteins and antimicrobial proteins
Phagocytes - Answer - Cell that eats abnormal cells
- Can be fixed or free shows signs on antigen on outside of membrane
- Macrophages and neutrophils
3rd: specific, antibodies, immune system
Properties of specific defences - Answer - Specific: 1 antigen- 1 response
- Versatility: lymphocytes mount a response to any antigen
- Memory: memory cell after exposure
- Tolerance: identifies between antigen and ur cells
Immune system memory - Answer - Humoral immunity has memory · Every different antigen has a memory cell · Memory cell will remember and produce antibodies instantly next time it sees that same antigen
- Types of T-cells · Helper- aid in maturing B cells, activation of other T cells and macrophages · Cytotoxic- destroy virus infected cells, tumour cells · Memory- hold memory of specific antigen for next infection
Cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity - Answer - Cell- meditated immunity: T lymphocytes · Activated when antigen is shown on membrane of affected cell · Inside the cell · Kills abnormal cells directly- don't make antibodies · Form memory cells... immune cells
- Humoral immunity: B lymphocytes · B-cells make antibody against the antigen: antibody- medicated immunity · Antibodies in body fluids · Antibody binds to inactive antigen
Antigens as "triggers" for B and T cell activation - Answer - Ways to activate B- cells · Phagocyte engulfs bacteria and presents antigens to helper T cells · Antigen attached to antibodies on surface of B cells
Functions of the integumentary system - Answer - Fluid
- Vitamin D
- Body temp
- Excretion, absorption
- Blood
Structure of integumentary system - Answer - Protection: skin is the most vulnerable organ of the body § Chemical barrier: skin secretions and melanin § Physical barrier: continuity of skin, water proof § Biological barrier: langerhan's cells, macrophages
- Body temp regulation o Sweating- 500ml/day at rest o Up to 12L/day
- Cutaneous sensation o Sensory receptors on the skin.
- Metabolic function o Produces vitamin D for calcium and phosphorus absorption
- Blood reservoirs o Dermis is highly vascularised o Blood can temporarily shunted from the skin and relocated to another part of the body that requires it
- Excretion and absorption o Removal of nitrogenous wastes
