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BIOL121- SEM 1 OT EXAM STUDY GUIDE, Exams of Advanced Education

BIOL121- SEM 1 OT EXAM STUDY GUIDE

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2024/2025

Available from 07/06/2025

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BIOL121- SEM 1 OT EXAM
STUDY GUIDE
Levels of Organisation - Answer - Atoms in combination
- Complex protein molecule
- Protein filaments (chem and molecular level)
- Cellular level
- tissue
- Organ level
- Organ system level
- Organism level
Atoms - Answer - Building blocks of all matter
- Protons (pos), Neutrons (neutral), Electrons (neg)
- Lose or gain elec to become ions and stable
Molecules - Answer Group of atoms working together
Elements - Answer - Symbol
- ions and electrolytes
- Substance made up of atoms with same number of protons
- Simplest substance known
- Mental or non-metal
Macromolecules - Answer - Proteins
- Carbohydrates
- Lipids/fats
- Nucleic acid
Macromolecule function - Answer - structure
- storage
- messengers
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BIOL121- SEM 1 OT EXAM

STUDY GUIDE

Levels of Organisation - Answer - Atoms in combination

  • Complex protein molecule
  • Protein filaments (chem and molecular level)
  • Cellular level
  • tissue
  • Organ level
  • Organ system level
  • Organism level Atoms - Answer - Building blocks of all matter
  • Protons (pos), Neutrons (neutral), Electrons (neg)
  • Lose or gain elec to become ions and stable Molecules - Answer Group of atoms working together Elements - Answer - Symbol
  • ions and electrolytes
  • Substance made up of atoms with same number of protons
  • Simplest substance known
  • Mental or non-metal Macromolecules - Answer - Proteins
  • Carbohydrates
  • Lipids/fats
  • Nucleic acid Macromolecule function - Answer - structure
  • storage
  • messengers
  • control Cellular level - Answer - group of atoms, molecules and organelles working together
  • basic unit of life Tissue level - Answer - group of similar cells working together
  • 4 types:
  1. Epithelial tissue
  2. Connective tissue
  3. Muscle tissue
  4. Neural/ nervous tissue Organ level - Answer - A group of different tissues working together
  • Multi-tasking and specialists Organ system level - Answer - A group of organs working together
  • Humans have 11 organ systems Organ system function - Answer - Control/direct
  • Cool and warm
  • Digest
  • Move
  • Protect
  • Remove
  • Reproduce
  • Store
  • Support
  • Transport Organism Level - Answer - Living being Body cavities - Answer - Where organ are suspended
  • Bones, muscles ect.
  • 2 main cavities: Abdominal cavity and Thoracic cavity separated by diaphragm

Proximal - Answer - Closer to limbs point of attachment Distal - Answer - Further away from limb point of attachment Superficial - Answer - Towards surface of a body structure or organ Deep - Answer - Towards centre of body structure or organ Electrons - Answer - Found in shells around nucleus

  • Negative charge
  • Proton and electron charge are equal
  • Valence electrons= outer most shell Molecule - Answer - Two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds
  • Element or compound Compounds - Answer - Atoms from different elements react together and are bonded
  • Different properties from their elements
  • some atoms are only single atoms and don't react (noble gases)
  • Bond to become stable (full outer shell) Ions - Answer - Atom that has gained or lost electron
  • Lose/donate e- = pos charge, Cation
  • Gain/accept e- = neg charge, Anion Ionic bonds - Answer - One atom transferring electron to another atom to form ions
  • Oppositely charged ions attract each other, this force of attraction creates the ionic bond. Covalent bonds - Answer - Forms when two atoms share a pair of valence electrons. Chemical Equation - Answer - Reactants are changed (left side)
  • Products are produced (right side)
  • reactant + reactant → product + product
  • The chemical formula of a compound tells you how many atoms of each element the molecule contains.
  • Elements form compounds
  • Atoms of elements combine in certain fixed ratios. The ratios are determined by the

combining power of atoms. Organic compounds - Answer - Make by living things

  • Organic compounds recognised from their formulae - contain C and H
  • Classified as (a) small biological molecules and (b) large biological molecules and polymers. Proteins - Answer - Proteins are organic compounds contain O, C, N and H
  • Proteins are central compound necessary for life
  • Many types of proteins: all made from smaller units called amino acids
  • Proteins vary in length, complexity and shape
  • Shape of protein determines function Inorganic compounds - Answer - Compounds that are not made by living things
  • Don't contain C pH scale - Answer - 1-
  • measures hydrogen ion (H+) concentration of a substance and therefore how acidic or basic/alkaline a substance is
  • Substance at 7 is neutral
  • Cellular processes are generally restricted to the middle of the pH scale between pH and 8. Acids - Answer - pH lower then 7
  • lower the number stronger the acid
  • Acids dissolve in water and produce hydrogen ions Bases - Answer - pH greater then 7
  • bases are dissolved in water (alkalis) produce hydroxide ions (OH-)
  • Alkalis have a pH greater than 7, the higher the number the stronger the alkali Cells and organelles - Answer - Combinations of many chemicals form cells
  • Cells are the basic structural and functional units of the body
  • Each cell has a specific task and works with many other cells to help our body maintain homeostasis
  • A cell can be divided into three main parts
  • Modifies and transports proteins
  • Cells that secrete proteins and B cells have lots of RER Nucleus - Answer - Control centre of cell
  • Holds DNA
  • decides the types and amounts of proteins to be synthesised
  • uninucleate, multinucleate and anucleate · Anucleate cells cannot make proteins or reproduce. Cytoplasm - Answer - Cellular material between plasma membrane and nucleus
  • Site of cellular activity
  • 2 components
  1. Cytosol: intracellular fluid, contains water, dissolved solutes and suspended particles
  2. Organelles: own structure and function Nervous Tissue - Answer - Controls
  • Primary function is communication
  • Types: neurons (nerve cells), neuroglia (support cells) Epithelial Tissue - Answer - Covers
  • Functions: protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion
  • Classified by shape and number of layers
  • Transport and movement due to shape Protection with layers Connective Tissue - Answer - Supports
  • Functions: support and bind other tissues, provide insulation and protection
  • Classified according to physical properties: connective tissue proper fluid connective tissue, supporting connective tissue Muscle Tissue - Answer - Moves
  • Specialised for contraction
  • Types: skeletal, smooth, cardiac

Membranes - Answer - Physical barriers that lines parts of the body

  • Consists of- epithelium and connective tissue Membrane Transport - Answer - Selectively permeable
  • Allows ions or molecules
  • Selective based on: Size and shape, Electrical change, Lipid solubility
  • Passage across the membrane is either: · Passive - it results from the random motion and collisions of ions and molecules (kinetic energy). · Active - energy expenditure, generally in the form of ATP, is required.
  • Membrane transport is categorised according to the mechanism involved: · Simple diffusion · Facilitated diffusion · Osmosis · Active transport
  • Diffusion rates are influenced by: · Distance · Molecular size · Temperature · Concentration gradient · Electrical force Tonicity - Answer - Isotonic: same water content as cell, same enter and leaving cell, maintains shape, normal
  • Hypertonic: more solute then water, crenation, cell dehydration
  • Hypotonic: more water then solutes, swelling Homeostasis - Answer - Maintain a stable/ balanced internal environment in the face of external conditions through constant interactions of the bodys regulatory processes
  • Body's ability to detect when something is out of balance, process the info and bring change to restore balance

· Thermoregulation- too cold · Regulation of blood calcium levels Positive Feedback - Answer - The response strengthens or enhances the stimulus to produce an even greater change

  • pos feedback loops are used when you want to produce large or rapid change
  • same direction as the change Microorganisms - Answer - Tiny living organisms
  • Living organisms can reproduce independently (viruses and prions not living)
  • Essential for decomposition and recycling of nutrients Prokaryote - Answer - Small- under 5millionths of a metre
  • Unicellular
  • Organelles have no membrane
  • Asexual reproduction Eukaryote - Answer - Large- over 5 millionth of a metre
  • Multicellular
  • Organelles have membrane
  • Sexual reproduction Virus - Answer - Not living
  • No cellular structure
  • Protein capsule around DNA or RNA
  • Can mutate
  • Antibiotics are ineffective (antivirals instead)
  • Size- billionth of a metre Bacteria - Answer - Prokaryote
  • Mostly uni-cellular
  • Different shapes
  • Have cell wall (thickness important)

Protozoa - Answer - Eukaryotic cells

  • Unicellular
  • Usually motile
  • Size from 1 to 150 microns (millionth of a metre) Fungi - Answer - Eukaryotic
  • Uni or multi cellular
  • Has a cell wall
  • Produce spores
  • Size about 2-10 microns Helminths - Answer - Eukaryote
  • Multicellular
  • Large (organ system)
  • Reproduction- eggs, larva, adult
  • Don't proliferate in host Bacterial conditions - Answer - Temperature- most between 10oC- 39oC
  • pH- close to neutral/ 7
  • Oxygen · Obligate aerobes- can only grow in the presence of O · Obligate anaerobes- cannot grow in the presence of O · Facultative anaerobes +/- O
  • Gram Stan
  • Structural difference in cell wall · Gram positive o thick layer of peptidoglycan o capable of forming spores o reinfection · Gram negative

Chain of infection - Answer Infectious agent-> reservoir -> portal of entry -> mode of transmission -> portal of exit -> susceptible host

Environment control - Answer - Sterilisation o destruction/ elimination of all microbes o Methods · Heat · Heat and pressure · Radiation · Filtration · Chemical

  • Disinfection o Elimination of most pathogens from inanimate objects o Methods · Chemical · Gas
  • Sanitation o Safe disposal of human urine and faeces

The skin - Answer - Covers the entire body

  • Largest organ of the body
  • Major component of the integumentary system
  • Integument= covering

Layers of the skin - Answer - Epidermis- outermost layer

  • Dermis- deep to the epidermis
  • Hypodermis- deep to the dermic, not really apart of the skin

Epidermis - Answer - Epi=upon

  • Outmost layer
  • Composed of epithelial cells- keratinised stratified squamous epithelium
  • Thinner portion of the two
  • Avascular- no blood vessels
  • 4 cell types o Keratinocytes o Melanocytes o Langerhan's calls o Merkel cells

Layers of Epidermis - Answer - Strat= layers

  • Stratum Basale- deepest layer, sits on top of dermis
  • Stratum spinosum- intermediate layer
  • Stratum granulosum- intermediate layer
  • Stratum lucida- intermediate layer
  • Stratum corneum- outermost layer, what you see

Thick and thin epidermis - Answer o Thick · composed of all 5 layers · covers palms, fingertips, soles of feet o Thin skin · missing stratum lucida · all the layers are thinner than thick skin layers · covers rest of the body

Functions of the skin- skin colour - Answer - 3 factors o Melanin o Carotene o Hemoglobin

  • Redness: Embarrassment, fever, hypertension ect.
  • Palour: Fear, anger, anaemia, hypotension
  • Jaundice: Liver disorder
  • Black/blue (bruises): hematoma

Functions of skin- Protection - Answer - Protection: skin is the most vulnerable organ of the body · Constantly exposed to bacteria, temps ect. · Acts as 3 types of barrier o Chemical barrier o Physical barrier o Biological barrier

  • Body temp regulation
  • Cutaneous sensation
  • Metabolic function
  • Blood reservoirs
  • Excretion and absorption

Aging on the skin - Answer Check notes- Module 2

Lymphatic System - Answer - Clusters of tissues

  • Drains excess fluid and proteins from all tissues back to blood circulation
  • Defends the body against external and internal threats
  • Transports fats and vitamins to and from the liver
  • Made of immune cells, lymph fluid, lymph vessels, lymphatic organs and tissues
  • Lymphocytes- key players · Produced from the same precursor cell in the bone marrow · Mature in bone marrow or thymus

Lymph - Answer - Means fluid

  • Fluid connective tissue
  • Contains lymphocytes and macrophages + enemies they seek out and destroy (forign cells aka cancer cells)
  • Plasma proteins and RBC usually not found
  • Lymph flows through special tubes from tissues to the venous system and heart · Lymph/atic capillaries · Lymph/atic vessels, trunks and ducts
  • Blood plasma (from capillaries) interstitial tissue fluid lymphatic capillary lymph vessels, trunks and ducts blood plasma (vein at base of neck)
  • Capillaries that begin as blind ended tubes
  • Structure similar to blood capillaries- one layer of the epithelial cells supported by basement membrane
  • Structure helps to let fluid in but not out- overlapping endothelial cells open when tissue fluid pressure is high (one way valve)
  • Fluid inside is called lympth
  • Lymph capillaries in intestinal villi= lacteals · Thin walls · Resemble veins: have more valves · Have lymph nodes at intervals · Respiratory and muscular pumps promote flow of lymph towards large veins/ heart
  • Vessels unite to form 2 thoracic ducts
  • Filter lymph- afferent vessels brings lymph with foreign material into node
  • Foreign matter trapped in fibres
  • Destroyed by macrophages, B and T cells
  • Efferent vessel leaves node with cleaner lymph

Lymphatic organs and tissue- Spleen - Answer - Between stomach and diaphragm

  • Macrophages remove worn-out or defective RBCs, WBCs and platelets
  • Stores and releases blood and blood cells
  • Site of production of blood during 2nd trimester pregnancy

Lymphatic organs and tissue- Malt - Answer - Mucosa

  • Associated lymphoid tissue

Lymphatic organs and tissue- Nodules - Answer - Scattered in connective tissue layer in the mucous membranes

Lymphatic organs and tissue- Oedema - Answer - Excessive accumulation of interstitial fluid in tissue spaces due to

  • Increase blood pressure
  • Obstruction to lymph flow

Antigen- first line defence - Answer - anything capable of inducing an immune response

  • anything foreign to the host

Specific/ adaptive body defence - Answer - Specialist/ targeted defence against one type of antigen

  • Acquired during life
  • Third line defence

Non-specific/ innate body defence - Answer - general defence/ attach on all antigens

  • Inborn
  • First and second line defences

First line defences - Answer - Aim- keep every invader out enrtyr the same way via chemical and physical barriers

  1. Skin- epidermis, sebum sweat
  2. Mucous membranes- mucous and hair
  3. Fluids that help protect there surfaces
  4. Defecation, vomiting, coughing and sneezing

Second line defences - Answer - Act once microbes have entered the body

  • Non-specific: any invader inside is attacked the same way

Second line defences- Antimicrobial chemicals - Answer - Interferon interferes with viral replication and activates immune cells · Made by infected host cells and WBC · Effective against bacteria as well

  • Complement is a set of plasma proteins that complements all aspects of the immune system · Promote phagocytosis and cell lysis

Second line defences- Phagocytes - Answer o Phagocytosis= cell eating o Phagocyte= cell that eats o Fixed or free o Attracted to the affected site by chemotaxis o Destroy bus and clean up dead tissues