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BIOL121- SEM 1 OT EXAM
STUDY GUIDE
Levels of Organisation - Answer - Atoms in combination
- Complex protein molecule
- Protein filaments (chem and molecular level)
- Cellular level
- tissue
- Organ level
- Organ system level
- Organism level Atoms - Answer - Building blocks of all matter
- Protons (pos), Neutrons (neutral), Electrons (neg)
- Lose or gain elec to become ions and stable Molecules - Answer Group of atoms working together Elements - Answer - Symbol
- ions and electrolytes
- Substance made up of atoms with same number of protons
- Simplest substance known
- Mental or non-metal Macromolecules - Answer - Proteins
- Carbohydrates
- Lipids/fats
- Nucleic acid Macromolecule function - Answer - structure
- storage
- messengers
- control Cellular level - Answer - group of atoms, molecules and organelles working together
- basic unit of life Tissue level - Answer - group of similar cells working together
- 4 types:
- Epithelial tissue
- Connective tissue
- Muscle tissue
- Neural/ nervous tissue Organ level - Answer - A group of different tissues working together
- Multi-tasking and specialists Organ system level - Answer - A group of organs working together
- Humans have 11 organ systems Organ system function - Answer - Control/direct
- Cool and warm
- Digest
- Move
- Protect
- Remove
- Reproduce
- Store
- Support
- Transport Organism Level - Answer - Living being Body cavities - Answer - Where organ are suspended
- Bones, muscles ect.
- 2 main cavities: Abdominal cavity and Thoracic cavity separated by diaphragm
Proximal - Answer - Closer to limbs point of attachment Distal - Answer - Further away from limb point of attachment Superficial - Answer - Towards surface of a body structure or organ Deep - Answer - Towards centre of body structure or organ Electrons - Answer - Found in shells around nucleus
- Negative charge
- Proton and electron charge are equal
- Valence electrons= outer most shell Molecule - Answer - Two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds
- Element or compound Compounds - Answer - Atoms from different elements react together and are bonded
- Different properties from their elements
- some atoms are only single atoms and don't react (noble gases)
- Bond to become stable (full outer shell) Ions - Answer - Atom that has gained or lost electron
- Lose/donate e- = pos charge, Cation
- Gain/accept e- = neg charge, Anion Ionic bonds - Answer - One atom transferring electron to another atom to form ions
- Oppositely charged ions attract each other, this force of attraction creates the ionic bond. Covalent bonds - Answer - Forms when two atoms share a pair of valence electrons. Chemical Equation - Answer - Reactants are changed (left side)
- Products are produced (right side)
- reactant + reactant → product + product
- The chemical formula of a compound tells you how many atoms of each element the molecule contains.
- Elements form compounds
- Atoms of elements combine in certain fixed ratios. The ratios are determined by the
combining power of atoms. Organic compounds - Answer - Make by living things
- Organic compounds recognised from their formulae - contain C and H
- Classified as (a) small biological molecules and (b) large biological molecules and polymers. Proteins - Answer - Proteins are organic compounds contain O, C, N and H
- Proteins are central compound necessary for life
- Many types of proteins: all made from smaller units called amino acids
- Proteins vary in length, complexity and shape
- Shape of protein determines function Inorganic compounds - Answer - Compounds that are not made by living things
- Don't contain C pH scale - Answer - 1-
- measures hydrogen ion (H+) concentration of a substance and therefore how acidic or basic/alkaline a substance is
- Substance at 7 is neutral
- Cellular processes are generally restricted to the middle of the pH scale between pH and 8. Acids - Answer - pH lower then 7
- lower the number stronger the acid
- Acids dissolve in water and produce hydrogen ions Bases - Answer - pH greater then 7
- bases are dissolved in water (alkalis) produce hydroxide ions (OH-)
- Alkalis have a pH greater than 7, the higher the number the stronger the alkali Cells and organelles - Answer - Combinations of many chemicals form cells
- Cells are the basic structural and functional units of the body
- Each cell has a specific task and works with many other cells to help our body maintain homeostasis
- A cell can be divided into three main parts
- Modifies and transports proteins
- Cells that secrete proteins and B cells have lots of RER Nucleus - Answer - Control centre of cell
- Holds DNA
- decides the types and amounts of proteins to be synthesised
- uninucleate, multinucleate and anucleate · Anucleate cells cannot make proteins or reproduce. Cytoplasm - Answer - Cellular material between plasma membrane and nucleus
- Site of cellular activity
- 2 components
- Cytosol: intracellular fluid, contains water, dissolved solutes and suspended particles
- Organelles: own structure and function Nervous Tissue - Answer - Controls
- Primary function is communication
- Types: neurons (nerve cells), neuroglia (support cells) Epithelial Tissue - Answer - Covers
- Functions: protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion
- Classified by shape and number of layers
- Transport and movement due to shape Protection with layers Connective Tissue - Answer - Supports
- Functions: support and bind other tissues, provide insulation and protection
- Classified according to physical properties: connective tissue proper fluid connective tissue, supporting connective tissue Muscle Tissue - Answer - Moves
- Specialised for contraction
- Types: skeletal, smooth, cardiac
Membranes - Answer - Physical barriers that lines parts of the body
- Consists of- epithelium and connective tissue Membrane Transport - Answer - Selectively permeable
- Allows ions or molecules
- Selective based on: Size and shape, Electrical change, Lipid solubility
- Passage across the membrane is either: · Passive - it results from the random motion and collisions of ions and molecules (kinetic energy). · Active - energy expenditure, generally in the form of ATP, is required.
- Membrane transport is categorised according to the mechanism involved: · Simple diffusion · Facilitated diffusion · Osmosis · Active transport
- Diffusion rates are influenced by: · Distance · Molecular size · Temperature · Concentration gradient · Electrical force Tonicity - Answer - Isotonic: same water content as cell, same enter and leaving cell, maintains shape, normal
- Hypertonic: more solute then water, crenation, cell dehydration
- Hypotonic: more water then solutes, swelling Homeostasis - Answer - Maintain a stable/ balanced internal environment in the face of external conditions through constant interactions of the bodys regulatory processes
- Body's ability to detect when something is out of balance, process the info and bring change to restore balance
· Thermoregulation- too cold · Regulation of blood calcium levels Positive Feedback - Answer - The response strengthens or enhances the stimulus to produce an even greater change
- pos feedback loops are used when you want to produce large or rapid change
- same direction as the change Microorganisms - Answer - Tiny living organisms
- Living organisms can reproduce independently (viruses and prions not living)
- Essential for decomposition and recycling of nutrients Prokaryote - Answer - Small- under 5millionths of a metre
- Unicellular
- Organelles have no membrane
- Asexual reproduction Eukaryote - Answer - Large- over 5 millionth of a metre
- Multicellular
- Organelles have membrane
- Sexual reproduction Virus - Answer - Not living
- No cellular structure
- Protein capsule around DNA or RNA
- Can mutate
- Antibiotics are ineffective (antivirals instead)
- Size- billionth of a metre Bacteria - Answer - Prokaryote
- Mostly uni-cellular
- Different shapes
- Have cell wall (thickness important)
Protozoa - Answer - Eukaryotic cells
- Unicellular
- Usually motile
- Size from 1 to 150 microns (millionth of a metre) Fungi - Answer - Eukaryotic
- Uni or multi cellular
- Has a cell wall
- Produce spores
- Size about 2-10 microns Helminths - Answer - Eukaryote
- Multicellular
- Large (organ system)
- Reproduction- eggs, larva, adult
- Don't proliferate in host Bacterial conditions - Answer - Temperature- most between 10oC- 39oC
- pH- close to neutral/ 7
- Oxygen · Obligate aerobes- can only grow in the presence of O · Obligate anaerobes- cannot grow in the presence of O · Facultative anaerobes +/- O
- Gram Stan
- Structural difference in cell wall · Gram positive o thick layer of peptidoglycan o capable of forming spores o reinfection · Gram negative
Chain of infection - Answer Infectious agent-> reservoir -> portal of entry -> mode of transmission -> portal of exit -> susceptible host
Environment control - Answer - Sterilisation o destruction/ elimination of all microbes o Methods · Heat · Heat and pressure · Radiation · Filtration · Chemical
- Disinfection o Elimination of most pathogens from inanimate objects o Methods · Chemical · Gas
- Sanitation o Safe disposal of human urine and faeces
The skin - Answer - Covers the entire body
- Largest organ of the body
- Major component of the integumentary system
- Integument= covering
Layers of the skin - Answer - Epidermis- outermost layer
- Dermis- deep to the epidermis
- Hypodermis- deep to the dermic, not really apart of the skin
Epidermis - Answer - Epi=upon
- Outmost layer
- Composed of epithelial cells- keratinised stratified squamous epithelium
- Thinner portion of the two
- Avascular- no blood vessels
- 4 cell types o Keratinocytes o Melanocytes o Langerhan's calls o Merkel cells
Layers of Epidermis - Answer - Strat= layers
- Stratum Basale- deepest layer, sits on top of dermis
- Stratum spinosum- intermediate layer
- Stratum granulosum- intermediate layer
- Stratum lucida- intermediate layer
- Stratum corneum- outermost layer, what you see
Thick and thin epidermis - Answer o Thick · composed of all 5 layers · covers palms, fingertips, soles of feet o Thin skin · missing stratum lucida · all the layers are thinner than thick skin layers · covers rest of the body
Functions of the skin- skin colour - Answer - 3 factors o Melanin o Carotene o Hemoglobin
- Redness: Embarrassment, fever, hypertension ect.
- Palour: Fear, anger, anaemia, hypotension
- Jaundice: Liver disorder
- Black/blue (bruises): hematoma
Functions of skin- Protection - Answer - Protection: skin is the most vulnerable organ of the body · Constantly exposed to bacteria, temps ect. · Acts as 3 types of barrier o Chemical barrier o Physical barrier o Biological barrier
- Body temp regulation
- Cutaneous sensation
- Metabolic function
- Blood reservoirs
- Excretion and absorption
Aging on the skin - Answer Check notes- Module 2
Lymphatic System - Answer - Clusters of tissues
- Drains excess fluid and proteins from all tissues back to blood circulation
- Defends the body against external and internal threats
- Transports fats and vitamins to and from the liver
- Made of immune cells, lymph fluid, lymph vessels, lymphatic organs and tissues
- Lymphocytes- key players · Produced from the same precursor cell in the bone marrow · Mature in bone marrow or thymus
Lymph - Answer - Means fluid
- Fluid connective tissue
- Contains lymphocytes and macrophages + enemies they seek out and destroy (forign cells aka cancer cells)
- Plasma proteins and RBC usually not found
- Lymph flows through special tubes from tissues to the venous system and heart · Lymph/atic capillaries · Lymph/atic vessels, trunks and ducts
- Blood plasma (from capillaries) interstitial tissue fluid lymphatic capillary lymph vessels, trunks and ducts blood plasma (vein at base of neck)
- Capillaries that begin as blind ended tubes
- Structure similar to blood capillaries- one layer of the epithelial cells supported by basement membrane
- Structure helps to let fluid in but not out- overlapping endothelial cells open when tissue fluid pressure is high (one way valve)
- Fluid inside is called lympth
- Lymph capillaries in intestinal villi= lacteals · Thin walls · Resemble veins: have more valves · Have lymph nodes at intervals · Respiratory and muscular pumps promote flow of lymph towards large veins/ heart
- Vessels unite to form 2 thoracic ducts
- Filter lymph- afferent vessels brings lymph with foreign material into node
- Foreign matter trapped in fibres
- Destroyed by macrophages, B and T cells
- Efferent vessel leaves node with cleaner lymph
Lymphatic organs and tissue- Spleen - Answer - Between stomach and diaphragm
- Macrophages remove worn-out or defective RBCs, WBCs and platelets
- Stores and releases blood and blood cells
- Site of production of blood during 2nd trimester pregnancy
Lymphatic organs and tissue- Malt - Answer - Mucosa
- Associated lymphoid tissue
Lymphatic organs and tissue- Nodules - Answer - Scattered in connective tissue layer in the mucous membranes
Lymphatic organs and tissue- Oedema - Answer - Excessive accumulation of interstitial fluid in tissue spaces due to
- Increase blood pressure
- Obstruction to lymph flow
Antigen- first line defence - Answer - anything capable of inducing an immune response
- anything foreign to the host
Specific/ adaptive body defence - Answer - Specialist/ targeted defence against one type of antigen
- Acquired during life
- Third line defence
Non-specific/ innate body defence - Answer - general defence/ attach on all antigens
- Inborn
- First and second line defences
First line defences - Answer - Aim- keep every invader out enrtyr the same way via chemical and physical barriers
- Skin- epidermis, sebum sweat
- Mucous membranes- mucous and hair
- Fluids that help protect there surfaces
- Defecation, vomiting, coughing and sneezing
Second line defences - Answer - Act once microbes have entered the body
- Non-specific: any invader inside is attacked the same way
Second line defences- Antimicrobial chemicals - Answer - Interferon interferes with viral replication and activates immune cells · Made by infected host cells and WBC · Effective against bacteria as well
- Complement is a set of plasma proteins that complements all aspects of the immune system · Promote phagocytosis and cell lysis
Second line defences- Phagocytes - Answer o Phagocytosis= cell eating o Phagocyte= cell that eats o Fixed or free o Attracted to the affected site by chemotaxis o Destroy bus and clean up dead tissues
