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BIOL 235 final Exam 202 5 - 2026 With Verified
Questions And Answers
Erythrocytes contain the enzyme - CORRECT ANSWER>>carbonic anhydrase carbonic anhydrase catalyzes - CORRECT ANSWER>>the conversion of metabolically produced C)2 and water into carbonic acid fixed phagocytic macrophages - CORRECT ANSWER>>remove most old erythrocytes from circulation Location of fixed phagocytic macrophages - CORRECT ANSWER>>narrow capillaries of the spleen Undifferentiated cells called pluripotent stem cells reside - CORRECT ANSWER>>in the bone marrow pluripotent stem cells - CORRECT ANSWER>>continuously divide and develop myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells to give rise to each of the types of blood cells emigration or diapedesis - CORRECT ANSWER>>The process of leukocytes squeezing through the capillary endothelium to exit the vasculature agglutinins - CORRECT ANSWER>>genetically-determined glycoprotein and glycolipid antigens found on the surface of an erythrocyte ESV - CORRECT ANSWER>>volume of blood in the ventricle after ejection has been completed Increase in ESV when - CORRECT ANSWER>>stroke volume is decreased Three cations with important effect on heart function - CORRECT ANSWER>>K+, Ca2+, and Na+ Increased blood levels of NA+ - CORRECT ANSWER>>blocks Ca2+ inflow and decreases force of contraction
Excess in K+ - CORRECT ANSWER>>blocks generation of action potentials pharynx - CORRECT ANSWER>>serves as a sound resonating chamber, contains tonsils, directs air flow inferiorly larynx - CORRECT ANSWER>>passes air form pharynx into windpipe, site of sound production paranasal sinuses - CORRECT ANSWER>>resonates sound, not part of the pharynx fauces - CORRECT ANSWER>>opening from oral cavity into pharynx tertiary bronchus - CORRECT ANSWER>>carries air to a segment of a lung terminal bronchiole - CORRECT ANSWER>>carries air directly into a respiratory bronchiole pleural membranes - CORRECT ANSWER>>surround the lungs surfactant - CORRECT ANSWER>>reduces surface tension at sites of gas exchange alveoli - CORRECT ANSWER>>actual sites of gas exchange eupnea - CORRECT ANSWER>>normal, quiet breathing costal breathing - CORRECT ANSWER>>shallow breathing using just the external intercostal muscles compliance - CORRECT ANSWER>>amount of effort required to expand the lungs and chest wall inspiratory capacity - CORRECT ANSWER>>tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume, usually about 3600 mL in males vital capacity - CORRECT ANSWER>>tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume; usually about 4800 mL in males functional residual capacity - CORRECT ANSWER>>residual volume + expiratory reserve volume; usually about 2400 mL in males Henry's law - CORRECT ANSWER>>states that the amount of gas that will dissolve in a liquid is
Macrophages - CORRECT ANSWER>>react more slowly to an infection than neutrophils do Pluripotent stem cells are derived from - CORRECT ANSWER>>mesenchyme Megakaryoblasts - CORRECT ANSWER>>platelet precursor cells, develop into megakaryocytes Platelet - CORRECT ANSWER>>fragment of megakaryocyte that is enclosed by a piece of plasma membrane Platelet plug - CORRECT ANSWER>>can stop blood loss completely if the hole in a blood vessel is small enough Hemostasis - CORRECT ANSWER>>sequence of responses that stops bleeding, vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, blood clotting Blood clot - CORRECT ANSWER>>gel that contains formed elements of the blood entangled in fibrin threads In blood clotting - CORRECT ANSWER>>coagulation factors are activated in sequence, resulting in a cascade of reactions that includes positive feedback cycles Extrinsic pathway of blood clotting - CORRECT ANSWER>>fewer steps, thromboplastic leaks into the blood from cells outside (extrinsic to) blood vessels and initiates the formation of prothrombinase Intrinsic pathway of blood clotting - CORRECT ANSWER>>more complex, occurs more slowly, activators are in direct contact with blood or contained within (intrinsic to) the blood. Outside tissue damage is not needed. clotting pathway - CORRECT ANSWER>>Prothrombinase - prothrombin - thrombin - soluble
fibrinogen - insoluble fibrin - threads of clot Common pathway - CORRECT ANSWER>>formation of prothrombinase marks the beginning of the____ In an incompatible blood transfusion - CORRECT ANSWER>>antibodies in the recipient's plasma bind to the antigens on the donated RBCs which causes agglutination (clumping) Antibodies in your plasma don't react with - CORRECT ANSWER>>antigens on your red blood cells HDN - CORRECT ANSWER>>occurs when maternal anti-Rh antibodies cross the placenta and cause hemolysis of fetal RBC ABO blood typing - CORRECT ANSWER>>blood is mixed with anti-A and anti-B serum The heart is located in - CORRECT ANSWER>>the mediastinum Pericardium - CORRECT ANSWER>>triple-layered sac that surrounds and protects the heart Pericardium two main parts - CORRECT ANSWER>>fibrous pericardium and serous pericardium Fibrous pericardium - CORRECT ANSWER>>superficial, tough, inelastic, bag that attaches to the diaphragm, prevents overstretching of the heart, anchors the heart in the mediastinum Serous pericardium - CORRECT ANSWER>>parietal layer, visceral layer (epicardium) Visceral layer of the serous pericardium - CORRECT ANSWER>>one of the layers of the heart wall Epicardium - CORRECT ANSWER>>Outer layer of the heart, two tissue layers visceral layer of the serous pericardium, underneath this is adipose tissue that houses the major coronary and cardiac vessels of the heart Mycardium - CORRECT ANSWER>>middle muscular layer, responsible for the pumping action of
Coronary veins - CORRECT ANSWER>>drain blood from the heart into the coronary sinus Cardiac muscle fibers connect to neighboring fibers by - CORRECT ANSWER>>intercalated discs which contain desmosomes and gap junctions Autorhythmic fibers - CORRECT ANSWER>>pacemaker, form the cardiac conduction system Cardiac conduction systems propagate - CORRECT ANSWER>>sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node, atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His), right and left bundle branches, Purkinje fibers Authorhythmic fibers pace - CORRECT ANSWER>>100 times a minute, natural pacemaker Conduction system - CORRECT ANSWER>>ensures that the chambers of the heart contract in a coordinated manner Long refractory period - CORRECT ANSWER>>prevents tetanus in cardiac muscle fibers ECG - CORRECT ANSWER>>recording of the electrical activity that initiates each heartbeat Depolarization - CORRECT ANSWER>>causes contraction Repolarization - CORRECT ANSWER>>causes relaxation of cardiac muscle fibers PQRS - CORRECT ANSWER>>Atrial depolarization (P wave) - Atrial systole - depolarization of ventricle (QRS complex) - ventricular systole - repolarization of ventricular fibers (T wave) - ventricular diastole Cardiac cycle - CORRECT ANSWER>>all of the events associated with one heartbeat Auscultation - CORRECT ANSWER>>listening to sounds within the body, usually done with a stethoscope
Stroke volume is regulated by three factors - CORRECT ANSWER>>preload (degree of stretch on the heart before it contracts), contractility (the forcefulness of contraction of individual ventricular muscle fibers), and afterload (pressure that must be exceeded before ejection of blood from ventricles can occur) The cardiovascular center location - CORRECT ANSWER>>medulla oblongata CV center controls - CORRECT ANSWER>>both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves that innervate the heart Cardiac output - CORRECT ANSWER>>equals SV x HR Stroke volume - CORRECT ANSWER>>the volume of blood ejected by the ventricle during each contraction Basic structure of a blood vessel - CORRECT ANSWER>>tunica interna, tunica media, tunica externa Tunica interna - CORRECT ANSWER>>innermost layer endothelium, facilitate efficient blood flow by reducing surface friction Tunica media - CORRECT ANSWER>>muscular and connective tissue layer that displays the greatest variation among the different vessel types Tunica media vasoconstriction - CORRECT ANSWER>>sympathetic stimulation causing contraction Tunica media vasodilation - CORRECT ANSWER>>sympathetic stimulation decreases or presence of certain chemicals (NO, lactic acid, H+) Tunica externa - CORRECT ANSWER>>mostly of collagen and elastic fibers, supplies the vessel wall with nerves and self-vessels, helps anchor the vessels to surrounding tissue
solutes reabsorbed normally is almost as large as the volume filtered Valves in veins - CORRECT ANSWER>>allow blood to flow in one direction only - towards the heart Blood reservoirs - CORRECT ANSWER>>systemic veins and venules contain more than half of the total blood volume How cardiac output becomes distributed into circulatory routes depends on two factors
CORRECT ANSWER>>pressure difference, and resistance to blood flow Mean arterial pressure (MAP) - CORRECT ANSWER>>average blood pressure in arteries Vascular resistance - CORRECT ANSWER>>the opposition to blood flow due to friction between blood and the walls of the blood vessels Vascular resistance depends on - CORRECT ANSWER>>size of the lumen, blood viscosity, and total blood vessel length Milking - CORRECT ANSWER>>referes to skeletal muscle contractions that drive venous blood toward the heart Increases in cardiac output and increases in systemic vascular resistance - CORRECT ANSWER>>will increase arterial pressure Velocity of blood flow is slowest - CORRECT ANSWER>>in capillaries because they have the largest total cross-sectional area CV center role - CORRECT ANSWER>>regulate heart rate and stroke volume Baroreceptor location - CORRECT ANSWER>>located in aorta, internal carotid arteries, and other large arteries in the neck and chest Carotid sinus reflex - CORRECT ANSWER>>baroreceptors in the wall of the carotid sinuses which
regulates blood pressure in the brain Aortic reflex - CORRECT ANSWER>>baroreceptors in the wall of the ascending aorta which regulates systemic blood pressure Baroreceptors are - CORRECT ANSWER>>pressure sensitive neurons that monitor stretching When blood pressure decreases - CORRECT ANSWER>>heart rate increases As the cuff deflates - CORRECT ANSWER>>first sound usually systolic pressure, the sounds suddenly become faint at the diastolic blood pressure Shock - CORRECT ANSWER>>failure of the CV system to deliver enough O2 and nutrients to meet cellular metabolic needs Four types of shock - CORRECT ANSWER>>hypovolemic shock, cardiogenic shock, vascular shock, obstructive shock Homeostatic responses to shock - CORRECT ANSWER>>activation of the reninangiotensin aldosterone system, secretion of antidiuretic hormone, activation of the sympathetic division of the ANS, release of local vasodilators Homeostatic mechanisms can compensate for an acute blood loss - CORRECT ANSWER>>of as much as 10% of total blood volume All veins of systemic circulation drain into - CORRECT ANSWER>>superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, coronary sinus All systemic arteries branch - CORRECT ANSWER>>from the aorta The arch of the aorta - CORRECT ANSWER>>ends at the level of the intervertebral disc between
Thoracic duct - CORRECT ANSWER>>begins as a dilation called the cisterna chyli, receives lymph from the rest of the body Formation of lymph - CORRECT ANSWER>>most components of blood plasma, such as nutrients, gases, and hormones, filter freely through the capillary wall to form interstitial fluid, but more fluid filters out of blood capillaries than returns to them by reabsorption. The excess filtered fluid, drains into lymphatic vessels and becomes lymph. Important function of lymphatic vessels - CORRECT ANSWER>>return lost plasma proteins and plasma to the bloodstream Sequence of fluid flow - CORRECT ANSWER>>blood capillaries (blood) - interstitial spaces (interstitial fluid) - lymphatic capillaries (lymph) - lymphatic vessels - lymphatic ducts - junction of the internal jugular and subclavian veins (blood) All lymph returns to the bloodstream - CORRECT ANSWER>>through thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct The bilobed thymus - CORRECT ANSWER>>largest at puberty and then the functional portion atrophies with age Lymph nodes are present - CORRECT ANSWER>>throughout the body, usually clustered in groups Spleen - CORRECT ANSWER>>largest single mass of lymphatic tissue in the body Spleen function in relation to blood cells - CORRECT ANSWER>>removal by macrophages of worn out/defective blood cells and platelets, storage of platelets, production of blood cells during fetal life Lymphatic tissues are derived from - CORRECT ANSWER>>mesoderm First line of defense - CORRECT ANSWER>>skin and mucus membrane
Second line of defense - CORRECT ANSWER>>internal defenses - antimicrobial substances Antimicrobial substances - CORRECT ANSWER>>interfereons, diffuse to uninfected neighboring cells, complement system, iron-binding proteins, antimicrobial proteins (AMPs) Major types of phagocytes are - CORRECT ANSWER>>neutrophils and macrophages Three stages of inflammation - CORRECT ANSWER>>vasodilation and increased permeability, phagocyte emigration, tissue repair Early stages of inflammation macrophages - CORRECT ANSWER>>neutrophils first then replace by monocytes Two types of adaptive immunity - CORRECT ANSWER>>Cell mediated immunity and antibody mediated immunity Most antigens have several epitopes that induce the production of different antibodies or activate different T cells - CORRECT ANSWER>> Epitope - CORRECT ANSWER>>small part of a large antigen molecule that triggers an immune response Hapten - CORRECT ANSWER>>smaller substance that has reactivity but lacks immunogenicity Fragments of exogenous antigens are processed and then presented with MHC-II molecules on the surface of an antigen presenting cell - CORRECT ANSWER>> Fragments of endogenous antigens are processed then presented with MHC-I proteins on the surface of an infected body cell - CORRECT ANSWER>> Cytokine - CORRECT ANSWER>>small protein hormones that stimulate or inhibit many normal cell functions, such as cell growth and differentiation Cell mediated immunity begins with - CORRECT ANSWER>>activation of a small number of T cells
Once costimulation occurs - CORRECT ANSWER>>an activated T cells undergoes clonal selection Most T cells that display CD4: develop into helper T cells, also known as CD4 T cells - CORRECT ANSWER>> Once activated helper T cells: formation of a clone of helper T cells that consists of active helper T cells and memory helper T cells - CORRECT ANSWER>> Active helper T cells - CORRECT ANSWER>>secrete cytokines T cells that display CD8 - CORRECT ANSWER>>develop into cytotoxic T cells (CD8 T cells) Cytotoxic T cells recognize foreign antigens combined with - CORRECT ANSWER>>MHC class I Helper T cells are activated by antigens associated with - CORRECT ANSWER>>MHC class II Maximal activation of cytotoxic T cells - CORRECT ANSWER>>required presentation of antigen associated with both MHC-I and MHC-II molecules Effector cell of a B cell clone - CORRECT ANSWER>>plasma cells, secrete specific antibodies Immunoglobulins (Tgs) - CORRECT ANSWER>>antibodies belong to a group of glycoproteins called globulins An antibody combines only - CORRECT ANSWER>>with the epitope on the antigen that triggered its production H chains - CORRECT ANSWER>>two chains in antibody L chains - CORRECT ANSWER>>two identical chains in antibodies Disulfide bond - CORRECT ANSWER>>holds each light chain to a heavy chain Variable (V) regions - CORRECT ANSWER>>constitute the antigen-binding site Constant C region - CORRECT ANSWER>>nearly the same in all antibodies of the same class
Main cytokines - CORRECT ANSWER>>interleukin 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, tumor necrosis factor, interferons, macrophage migration inhibiting factor The upper respiratory system includes - CORRECT ANSWER>>the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, and associated structures Lower respiratory system includes - CORRECT ANSWER>>the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and the lungs Functions of the respiratory system - CORRECT ANSWER>>provides for gas exchange: intake of O2 for delivery to body cells and removal of CO2 produced by body cells, helps regulate blood pH, contains receptors for sense of smell, filters inspired air, produces vocal sounds, excretes small amounts of water and heat As air passes through the nose - CORRECT ANSWER>>it is warmed, filtered, moistened, and olfaction occurs External nose - CORRECT ANSWER>>has a cartilaginous framework and bony framework Pharynx - CORRECT ANSWER>>can be divided into three anatomical regions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx Nasopharynx - CORRECT ANSWER>>lies posterior to the nasal cavity and extends to the soft palate Through internal nares - CORRECT ANSWER>>nasopharynx receives air from the nasal cavity along with packages of dust-laden mucus Oropharynx - CORRECT ANSWER>>intermediate portion of the pharynx, lies posterior to the oral cavity and extends from the soft palate inferiorly to the level of the hyoid bone Fauces
- CORRECT ANSWER>>opening from the moth into the oropharynx Oropharynx function - CORRECT ANSWER>>both respiratory and digestive
Oblique and horizontal fissures - CORRECT ANSWER>>divide the right lung into three lobes Respiratory bronchioles subdivide into - CORRECT ANSWER>>alveolar ducts Alveolar sacs consist of: two or more alveoli that share a common opening - CORRECT ANSWER>> Respiratory membrane - CORRECT ANSWER>>alveolar and capillary walls where the exchange of O2 and CO2 takes place Microscopic airway pathway - CORRECT ANSWER>>respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli Type II alveolar cells secrete - CORRECT ANSWER>>alveolar fluid including surfactant Respiratory membrane has four layers - CORRECT ANSWER>>type 1 and 2 alveolar cell (constitutes the alveolar wall), epithelial basement membrane, capillary basement membrane, capillary endothelium In order to breathe in - CORRECT ANSWER>>the pressure inside the alveoli must be lower than the atmospheric pressure, condition is achieved by increasing the size of the lungs Boyles' law - CORRECT ANSWER>>the pressure of a gas in a closed container is inversely proportional to the volume of the container During normal quiet inhalation - CORRECT ANSWER>>the diaphragm and external intercostals contract, lungs expand, air moves into the lungs During normal quiet exhalation - CORRECT ANSWER>>the diaphragm and external intercostals relax and the lungs recoil, forcing air out of the lungs Air moves into the lungs when - CORRECT ANSWER>>alveolar pressure is less than atmospheric pressure
Air moves out of the lungs - CORRECT ANSWER>>when alveolar pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure Exhalation is - CORRECT ANSWER>>a passive process resulting from elastic recoil of the chest wall and lungs Elastic recoil two factors - CORRECT ANSWER>>recoil of elastic fibers that were stretched during inhalation, inward pull of surface tension due to the film of alveolar fluid Exhalation starts - CORRECT ANSWER>>when inspiratory muscles relax Lung capacities are - CORRECT ANSWER>>combination of various lung volumes Tidal volume - CORRECT ANSWER>>volume of one breath Inspiratory reserve volume - CORRECT ANSWER>>by taking in a very deep breath Residual volume - CORRECT ANSWER>>volume left in lungs after forced expiration Inspiratory capacity - CORRECT ANSWER>>sum of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve Functional residual capacity - CORRECT ANSWER>>sum of residual volume and expiratory reserve volume Vital capacity - CORRECT ANSWER>>sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume Total lung capacity - CORRECT ANSWER>>sum of vital capacity and residual volume Dalton's law - CORRECT ANSWER>>each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if no other gases were present Henry's law - CORRECT ANSWER>>the quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and its solubility Gases diffuse - CORRECT ANSWER>>from areas of higher partial pressure to areas of lower partial pressure Rate if pulmonary and systemic gas exchange depend on - CORRECT ANSWER>>partial pressure
