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BIO210 FINAL EXAM 2025-2026|REAL QUESTIONS
AND CORRECT ANSWERS|A+ RATED
What is the genome? The complete genetic composition of a cell that codes all the proteins a cell can make. What are the main components of living cells? Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. What is the proteome? The entire collection of proteins a cell makes at a given time, determining the cell's structure and function. Where is DNA found and what does it store? DNA is found within chromosomes and stores the information needed to make cellular proteins.
What is gene expression and what are its main processes? Gene expression involves transcription to produce mRNA and translation to produce a polypeptide. At what levels is genetics studied? Genetics is studied at molecular, cellular, organism, and population levels. What role does genetic variation play in traits? Genetic variation underlies variation in traits, with the environment also playing a key role. How is genetic material passed on? Genetic material is passed from parents to offspring during reproduction. What are the chromosome sets in somatic cells and gametes?
What does 'normal' mean in genetics? In genetics, normal means common, and wild type also means common. What is a karyotype? An organized representation of chromosomes from a single cell. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ? Prokaryotic cells lack internal compartmentalization, while eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and other compartments. What is the process of bacterial cell division? Bacteria divide by binary fission. What occurs before eukaryotic cell division? Chromosomes are replicated to form sister chromatids.
What is the role of the mitotic spindle apparatus? It is used for chromosome sorting in eukaryotes during cell division. What are the phases of mitosis? Prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. How does cytokinesis differ in animal and plant cells? In animal cells, it forms a cleavage furrow, while in plant cells, it forms a cell plate. What is produced during meiosis in eukaryotes? Four haploid cells. What is the alternation of generations in plants? It is the cycle between a diploid sporophyte and a haploid gametophyte, with the gametophyte producing gametes.
How is the law of independent assortment explained? By the random alignment of bivalents during metaphase of meiosis I. What did Morgan's work on fruit flies demonstrate? It supported the chromosome theory of inheritance by showing a gene on the X chromosome. How are human inheritance patterns studied? Using pedigrees. What tools are used in genetics research? Probability, the product rule, the binomial expansion equation, and the chi-square test. What are some inheritance patterns that differ from Mendelian inheritance? Several inheritance patterns exist that differ from those observed by Mendel.
What are wild-type alleles? Wild-type alleles are prevalent in a natural population and can exhibit genetic polymorphism when a gene has two or more wild-type alleles. What typically causes recessive alleles? Recessive alleles are often due to mutations that cause reduced or lost protein function. What are dominant mutant alleles commonly a result of? Dominant mutant alleles commonly result from gain-of-function mutations, dominant-negative mutations, or haploinsufficiency. What is incomplete penetrance? Incomplete penetrance occurs when an expected allele is not expressed, and traits can vary in expressivity. How does the environment influence traits?
What is pseudoautosomal inheritance? Pseudoautosomal inheritance occurs due to short homology regions on the X and Y chromosomes. What are sex-influenced traits? Sex-influenced traits result in different phenotypes in heterozygous males and females. What are sex-limited traits? Sex-limited traits are expressed in only one sex, leading to sexual dimorphism. What are lethal alleles? Lethal alleles typically occur in essential genes and can cause unexpected phenotype ratios. What is pleiotropy? Pleiotropy is when a single gene exhibits multiple phenotypic effects.
What is gene interaction? Gene interaction occurs when two or more genes affect a single phenotype. What is epistasis? Epistasis occurs when one gene's alleles mask another gene's phenotypic expression. What is complementation in genetics? Complementation is when two individuals with similar recessive phenotypes produce wild-type offspring. What is maternal effect in inheritance? Maternal effect is an inheritance pattern where the female parent's genotype determines the offspring's phenotype due to gene products transferred to the oocyte.
Extranuclear inheritance refers to the inheritance of genetic material outside the cell nucleus, found in organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts. What is heteroplasmy? Heteroplasmy of chloroplasts can cause a variegated phenotype. What is synteny in genetics? Synteny refers to two or more genes being located on the same chromosome. What is the role of crossing over in genetic linkage? Crossing over during meiosis can alter the pattern of linked alleles. What does a genetic map show? A genetic map shows the order and relative locations of genes on chromosomes.
What is positive interference in genetics? Positive interference is when a crossover in one region reduces the chance of another nearby crossover. What organism is commonly used for mapping linked genes through tetrad analysis? Haploid eukaryotes, like Ascomycetes. What is mitotic recombination and what can it produce? Mitotic recombination is a rare event that can produce twin spots. What are the three mechanisms for genetic transfer in bacteria? Conjugation, transduction, and transformation. How was conjugation discovered in E. coli? By analyzing auxotrophic strains and requiring cell-to-cell contact, demonstrated by the U-tube apparatus experiment.
What impact has horizontal gene transfer had on antibiotic resistance? It has spread antibiotic resistance genes, making pathogenic strains harder to treat. What features are used for identifying chromosomes? Centromere location, size, and banding pattern. What are the types of chromosome structure variations? Deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. What is the significance of deletions in chromosomes? Deletions can be terminal or interstitial and are linked to disorders like cri-du-chat syndrome. What is copy number variation (CNV) and its association with diseases? CNV is common and associated with diseases; techniques like CGH are used to identify these changes.
What are the two types of inversions in chromosomes? Pericentric and paracentric inversions. What is the consequence of crossing over in an inversion heterozygote? It causes deletions and duplications in the resulting chromosomes. What is a reciprocal translocation and its implication in genetics? Reciprocal translocations result from chromosome breakage/repair or nonhomologous crossing over, and can lead to conditions like familial Down syndrome. What are the two categories of variations in chromosome number? Euploidy (sets) and aneuploidy (particular chromosomes). Why is aneuploidy often detrimental? It causes gene expression imbalances, as seen in Down syndrome (trisomy 21).
What did Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty discover about the transforming substance? They found that the transforming substance is DNA. What did Hershey and Chase demonstrate regarding T2 phage? They showed that the genetic material of T2 phage is DNA. What is the structure of DNA? DNA is a double helix of nucleotide strands, with specific base pairing (A-T, G-C) and antiparallel strands. What is the significance of Chargaff's findings in DNA structure? Chargaff found that the ratios of A=T and G=C in DNA, which are crucial for understanding base pairing. What are the major and minor features of DNA?
DNA has a major groove and a minor groove. What are the main forms of DNA found in living cells? B DNA is the major form, while Z DNA is an alternative form. What distinguishes RNA from DNA? RNA is a nucleotide strand with ribose sugar and uracil instead of thymine, and it can form helical regions and 3D structures. What is the difference between chromosomes and a genome? Chromosomes contain DNA, while a genome is a complete set of genetic material. What is the typical structure of bacterial and archaeal chromosomes? They are usually circular with one or more origins of replication and contain thousands of genes.
