Endothelial Cells and Their Functions: Blood-Brain Barrier and Beyond, Exams of Nursing

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BIOL 117

Intro to Anatomy and

Physiology

COMPLETED EXAM

The blood-brain barrier is primarily composed of:

A) Astrocytes

B) Ependymal cells

C) Microglia

D) Endothelial cells

Answer: D) Endothelial cells

Rationale: The blood-brain barrier is formed by endothelial cells

that tightly regulate the passage of substances from the bloodstream

into the brain.

Which structure is responsible for the production of cerebrospinal

fluid?

A) Arachnoid villi

B) Choroid plexus

C) Dura mater

D) Pia mater

Answer: B) Choroid plexus

Rationale: The choroid plexus produces cerebrospinal fluid, which

cushions the brain and spinal cord.

During muscle contraction, what role does calcium ion (Ca2+) play?

A) It breaks down ATP to release energy.

B) It binds to troponin, changing its shape and removing the

blocking action of tropomyosin.

C) It forms cross-bridges with myosin heads.

D) It depolarizes muscle fibers to initiate contraction.

Answer: B) It binds to troponin, changing its shape and removing

the blocking action of tropomyosin.

Rationale: Calcium ions bind to troponin during muscle

D. Cell division

Answer: B. Energy production

Rationale: Mitochondria are the powerhouse of the cell and are

responsible for producing ATP, the molecule that provides energy

for cellular processes.

2. Which organelle is responsible for protein synthesis in a cell?

A. Golgi apparatus

B. Endoplasmic reticulum

C. Ribosomes

D. Nucleus

Answer: C. Ribosomes

Rationale: Ribosomes are the cellular structures where proteins are

synthesized.

3. Which of the following is NOT a function of the cell membrane?

A. Regulating the passage of substances in and out of the cell

B. Providing structural support to the cell

C. Protecting the cell from external threats

D. Synthesizing proteins

Answer: D. Synthesizing proteins

Rationale: The cell membrane is primarily responsible for

regulating the passage of substances in and out of the cell and

providing structural support and protection.

4. Which of the following elements is a major component of organic

molecules in the human body?

A. Iron

B. Sodium

C. Carbon

D. Calcium

Answer: C. Carbon

Rationale: Carbon is a key component of organic molecules such as

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

5. Which of the following is NOT a function of proteins in the

human body?

A. Providing energy

B. Enzyme catalysis

C. Structural support

D. Transport of substances

Answer: A. Providing energy

Rationale: Proteins primarily serve as enzymes, provide structural

support, and transport substances in the body, but they are not a

major source of energy.

6. Which of the following is an example of a catabolic reaction in the

human body?

A. Glycogen synthesis

B. Protein synthesis

C. Glycolysis

D. Amino acid degradation

A. Lysosomes

B. Peroxisomes

C. Endoplasmic reticulum

D. Golgi apparatus

Answer: B. Peroxisomes

Rationale: Peroxisomes are responsible for detoxifying harmful

substances in the liver cells, such as alcohol and drugs.

10. Which of the following is true about osmosis?

A. It involves the movement of water from a lower concentration to

a higher concentration

B. It is a form of active transport

C. It requires energy in the form of ATP

D. It involves the movement of water across a semi-permeable

membrane

Answer: D. It involves the movement of water across a semi-

permeable membrane

Rationale: Osmosis is the movement of water from an area of higher

concentration to an area of lower concentration across a semi-

permeable membrane.

11. Which of the following is an example of passive transport in a

cell?

A. Facilitated diffusion

B. Endocytosis

C. Exocytosis

D. Sodium-potassium pump

Answer: A. Facilitated diffusion

Rationale: Facilitated diffusion is a form of passive transport that

allows substances to pass through a cell membrane with the help of

carrier proteins.

12. Which of the following is an example of an exocrine gland in the

human body?

A. Pituitary gland

B. Pancreas

C. Thyroid gland

D. Salivary gland

Answer: D. Salivary gland

Rationale: Exocrine glands secrete substances through ducts onto

an external or internal surface, such as the salivary glands.

13. Which of the following is responsible for maintaining the pH

balance in the blood?

A. Kidneys

B. Liver

C. Lungs

D. Pancreas

Answer: A. Kidneys

Rationale: The kidneys play a critical role in maintaining the pH

balance in the blood by regulating the levels of acids and bases.

14. Which of the following is an example of positive feedback in the

a) Regulation of body temperature

b) Transportation of oxygen to cells

c) Digestion of food

d) Regulation of blood sugar levels

Answer: b) Transportation of oxygen to cells

Rationale: The primary function of the respiratory system is to

facilitate the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the

body and the environment. When we breathe in, oxygen is taken

into the lungs and then transported via the blood to the cells, where

it is used for cellular respiration.

Question 2:

What is the main function of the nervous system?

a) Regulation of body temperature

b) Transport of nutrients to cells

c) Coordination of body movements

d) Digestion of food

Answer: c) Coordination of body movements

Rationale: The nervous system is responsible for coordinating the

body's movements and transmitting signals between different parts

of the body. It also plays a key role in controlling bodily functions

and maintaining homeostasis.

Question 3:

Which of the following is a function of the skeletal system?

a) Production of hormones

b) Protection of internal organs

c) Digestion of food

d) Regulation of blood pressure

Answer: b) Protection of internal organs

Rationale: The skeletal system provides structural support for the

body and protects vital organs such as the heart, lungs, and brain. It

also serves as a storage site for minerals and plays a role in the

production of blood cells.

Question 4:

What is the primary function of the circulatory system?

a) Regulation of body temperature

b) Transportation of nutrients and waste products

c) Production of enzymes

d) Regulation of blood sugar levels

Answer: b) Transportation of nutrients and waste products

Rationale: The circulatory system, comprising the heart, blood, and

blood vessels, is responsible for transporting nutrients, oxygen, and

hormones to cells and removing waste products such as carbon

dioxide and urea from the body.

Question 5:

Which of the following is a function of the integumentary system?

a) Regulation of body temperature

c) Coordination of body movements

d) Transportation of nutrients to cells

Answer: b) Production of bile

Rationale: The liver is responsible for producing bile, which aids in

the digestion and absorption of fats in the small intestine. It also

plays a key role in detoxification, metabolism, and the storage of

nutrients.

Question 8:

What is the primary function of the kidneys?

a) Regulation of body temperature

b) Production of red blood cells

c) Filtration of blood and excretion of waste products

d) Coordination of body movements

Answer: c) Filtration of blood and excretion of waste products

Rationale: The kidneys filter blood to remove waste products and

excess substances, such as urea and electrolytes, while reabsorbing

essential substances like water and glucose. They also play a role in

regulating blood pressure and the production of red blood cells.

Question 9:

Which of the following is a function of the digestive system?

a) Regulation of body temperature

b) Transportation of oxygen to cells

c) Breakdown of food into nutrients

d) Coordination of body movements

Answer: c) Breakdown of food into nutrients

Rationale: The digestive system processes food through mechanical

and chemical digestion, breaking it down into nutrients that can be

absorbed by the body. These nutrients provide energy and essential

building blocks for cellular functions.

Question 10:

What is the primary function of the endocrine system?

a) Regulation of body temperature

b) Coordination of body movements

c) Production and secretion of hormones

d) Transportation of nutrients to cells

Answer: c) Production and secretion of hormones

Rationale: The endocrine system consists of glands that produce

and release hormones to regulate various bodily functions,

including metabolism, growth, and reproduction. Hormones act as

chemical messengers, influencing the activity of target cells and

organs.

Question 11:

Which of the following is a function of the muscular system?

a) Production of red blood cells

b) Coordination of body movements

c) Regulation of body temperature

d) Production of gametes (sperm and eggs)

Answer: d) Production of gametes (sperm and eggs)

Rationale: The reproductive system is responsible for producing

and delivering gametes (sperm in males, eggs in females) for the

purpose of sexual reproduction. It also plays a role in the

production of sex hormones and the development of secondary

sexual characteristics.

Question 14:

What is the primary function of the lymphatic system?

a) Transport of nutrients to cells

b) Production of bile

c) Regulation of blood pressure

d) Defense against pathogens and foreign substances

Answer: d) Defense against pathogens and foreign substances

Rationale: The lymphatic system is involved in immunity, carrying

lymph, a fluid containing white blood cells, throughout the body to

fight infections and remove cellular waste and toxins. It also plays a

role in the absorption of fats and the maintenance of fluid balance.

Question 15:

Which of the following is a function of the urinary system?

a) Production of bile

b) Regulation of blood pressure

c) Filtration of blood and excretion of waste products

d) Coordination of body movements

Answer: c) Filtration of blood and excretion of waste products

Rationale: The urinary system, comprising the kidneys, ureters,

bladder, and urethra, is responsible for filtering blood to remove

waste products and excess substances, then excreting them as urine.

It also plays a role in regulating blood pressure and maintaining

electrolyte and fluid balance in the body.

What is the name of the structure that connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx and equalizes the pressure in the ear? Explain its function and clinical significance.

• The structure is called the eustachian tube or the auditory tube. It allows air to enter or leave the middle ear cavity, depending on the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the pressure in the ear. This helps to prevent damage to the tympanic membrane or the ossicles. The eustachian tube also drains mucus and secretions from the middle ear to the nasopharynx, preventing infections. However, if the eustachian tube is blocked or inflamed, it can cause otitis media, which is a common ear infection in children. . What are the three types of muscle tissue in the human body? Describe their location, structure, function, and innervation.
• The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle is attached to bones and is responsible for voluntary movements. It has a striated appearance due to the arrangement of actin and myosin filaments in sarcomeres. It is innervated by somatic motor neurons that release acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junctions. Cardiac muscle is found in the heart and is responsible for pumping blood. It also has a striated appearance, but it has intercalated discs that connect adjacent cells and allow electrical impulses to spread quickly. It is innervated by autonomic neurons that modulate its rate and force of contraction. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs and vessels and is responsible for involuntary movements such as peristalsis, vasoconstriction, and dilation. It has a smooth appearance because it lacks sarcomeres and has a diffuse arrangement of actin and myosin filaments. It is innervated by autonomic neurons that release either acetylcholine or norepinephrine, depending on the organ.

What are the three types of joints in the human body? Describe their structure, mobility, and examples.

• The three types of joints are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints. Fibrous joints are held together by dense connective tissue and have little or no mobility. They provide strength and stability to certain parts of the skeleton. An example of a fibrous joint is the suture between cranial bones. Cartilaginous joints are held together by cartilage and have limited mobility. They allow some flexibility and shock absorption to certain parts of the skeleton. An example of a cartilaginous joint is the intervertebral disc between vertebrae. Synovial joints are held together by a joint capsule that contains synovial fluid and have high mobility. They allow a wide range of motion to certain parts of the skeleton. An example of a synovial joint is the knee joint. What are some ways that nurses can help patients maintain or restore homeostasis? (2 marks) Some ways that nurses can help patients maintain or restore homeostasis are:
• Assessing vital signs and other indicators of homeostatic status regularly and reporting any abnormal findings to the physician or other health care providers. (1 mark)
• Providing appropriate interventions such as medication administration, fluid and electrolyte replacement, wound care, infection control, pain management, and education to address any homeostatic imbalances or potential complications. (1 mark)
• Promoting healthy lifestyle habits such as nutrition, exercise, stress management, and smoking cessation to prevent or reduce the risk of homeostatic disorders or diseases. (1 mark) What are some factors that can affect the set points and ranges of homeostatic variables in different individuals or populations? (2 marks) Some factors that can affect the set points and ranges of homeostatic variables in different individuals or populations are:
• Genetic factors, which can influence the expression and function of genes that regulate homeostasis, such as those involved in metabolism, hormone synthesis and secretion, immune response, and blood clotting. For example, some people may have genetic variants that make them more susceptible to diabetes or hemophilia. ( mark)
• Environmental factors, which can expose individuals or populations to different stimuli or stressors that can alter their homeostatic responses. For example, some people may live in hot or cold climates that require them to adjust their body temperature more frequently or drastically than others. (1 mark)
• Developmental factors, which can affect the maturation and aging of the body systems that are involved in homeostasis. For example, children and adolescents may have different set points and ranges for growth hormone and sex hormones than adults, while older adults may have reduced sensitivity or responsiveness to some homeostatic signals or feedback mechanisms. (1 mark)

What are some examples of positive feedback loops that are beneficial for the body? (2 marks) Some examples of positive feedback loops that are beneficial for the body are:

• The lactation reflex, which is the process of milk production and secretion in response to suckling by a newborn. The stimulation of the nipple by the baby triggers the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland, which causes the contraction of the mammary glands and the release of milk. The more the baby suckles, the more oxytocin is released, and the more milk is produced. This ensures that the baby receives adequate nutrition and bonding with the mother. (1 mark)
• The inflammatory response, which is the process of tissue repair and defense against pathogens or foreign substances. The injury or infection of a tissue triggers the release of chemical mediators such as histamine, prostaglandins, and cytokines, which cause vasodilation, increased blood flow, increased permeability, and attraction of white blood cells to the site of damage. The more the tissue is damaged or infected, the more chemical mediators are released, and the more intense the inflammatory response is. This helps to isolate and eliminate the source of injury or infection and to initiate healing. (1 mark) What are some examples of negative feedback loops that are harmful for the body? (2 marks) Some examples of negative feedback loops that are harmful for the body are:
• The vicious cycle of obesity, which is the process of weight gain and metabolic dysfunction due to excess calorie intake and reduced physical activity. The accumulation of fat tissue increases the secretion of leptin, a hormone that signals satiety and energy expenditure. However, chronic exposure to high levels of leptin causes leptin resistance, which reduces the sensitivity and responsiveness of the brain to leptin signals. This leads to increased appetite, decreased metabolism, and further weight gain. The more weight is gained, the more leptin is secreted, and the more leptin resistance is developed. This makes it harder to lose weight and maintain a healthy body weight. (1 mark)
• The downward spiral of depression, which is the process of mood disorder and cognitive impairment due to chronic stress or trauma. The exposure to stress or trauma activates the hypothalamic-pituitary- adrenal (HPA) axis, which releases cortisol, a hormone that helps cope with stress. However, prolonged or excessive activation of the HPA axis causes cortisol dysregulation, which reduces the production and function of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that regulates mood and cognition. This leads to decreased happiness, increased sadness, anxiety, hopelessness, and suicidal thoughts. The more depressed one feels, the more stress or trauma one experiences, and the more cortisol dysregulation occurs. This makes it harder to recover from depression and restore a normal mood state. (1 mark) What are some examples of homeostatic adaptations that occur in response to exercise? (2 marks) Some examples of homeostatic adaptations that occur in response to exercise are:
• Increased cardiac output, which is the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute. This occurs because exercise increases the demand for oxygen and nutrients by the working muscles and other tissues. To meet this demand, the heart rate and stroke volume increase during exercise, resulting in increased cardiac output. This