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The following bibliographical essay is a far more comprehensive listing of scholarship on early modern violence than was possible in the print version of Violence in Early Modern Europe. Space constraints confined the published bibliography to a limited number of works, almost all of them in English. This listing presents scholarship – in English and a number of other European languages – that is pertinent to the historical study of vio- lence.
Introduction
As we saw in the text of this chapter, historians and sociologists have long sought the causes of behavioral changes among early modern Europeans. Max Weber was a pioneer in this search, as he was in so much else in modern social thought. He warned of the disciplining process imposed on individuals by the growing power of the modern state as well as by the power of other institutions such as the army and by growing modern industries. The result, he alleged, would be an “iron cage” for the individ- ual, a phrase he used in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism , trans. by Talcott Parsons (London: Allen and Unwin, 1948). Scholars who followed in Weber’s footsteps concurred with his asser- tion that a process of social discipline resulted from new power dynamics emerging in the early modern period. This was certainly the message of the philosopher Michel Foucault in his works Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason , trans. by Richard Howard (New York: Pantheon Books, 1965); The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception , trans. by A. M. Sheridan Smith (New York: Pantheon Books, 1973); and Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison , trans. by Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1979). In these books Foucault connected basic changes in mentality with developments in punishments and the enforcement of social norms resulting from the rise of the bourgeois-capitalist state. The state, in Foucault’s view, practiced an increasingly subtle repression of the individual designed to modify
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behavior – a repression epitomized by the “great confinement” of social deviants in asylums, hospitals, workhouses, and prisons. Other scholars, many with far more formal historical training than Foucault, also identified increasing disciplining of the individual with growing early modern state power. The German historian Gerhard Oestreich described a process of “social disciplining” by the institutions of the early modern state that he described in a number of works: Neostoicism and the Early Modern State , ed. by Brigitta Oestreich and H. G. Koenigsberger, trans. by David McLintock (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); “Policey und Prudentia civilis in der barocken Gesellschaft Von Stadt und Staat” in his Strukturprobleme der frühen Neuzeit: ausgewählte Aüfsätze (Berlin: Duncker und Humblot, 1980), pp. 367–79; and “Strukturprobleme des europäischen Absolutismus,” Viertelsjähreschrift für Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte 55 (1968), pp. 329–47. Norbert Elias was one of the first scholars to move beyond simply linking behavioral change to the growing normative power of the early modern state. He described a “civilizing process” in which increasing numbers of people in western Europe internalized social restraints aimed especially at containing violence. His key works, which drew little schol- arly attention when published originally in 1939 on the eve of World War II, are now tremendously influential. They are The Civilizing Process , trans. by Edmond Jephcott, vol. 1, The History of Manners and vol. 2, Power and Civility (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978–82). The work of Elias has influenced much modern scholarship, including that of Pieter Spierenburg on crime and punishment, which we will chart in later sections of this bibliography, and the works of Robert Muchembled: L’invention de l’homme moderne: sensibilités, moeurs et com- portements collectives sous l’Ancien Régime (Paris: Fayard, 1988) and La société policée: politique et politesse en France du XVIIe^ siècle au XX e^ siècle (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1998). A good summary of the work of Elias, Foucault, and Oestreich is Norbert Finzsch, “Elias, Foucault, Oestreich: On a Historical Theory of Confinement” in Norbert Finzsch and Robert Jütte (eds.), Institutions of Confinement: Hospitals, Asylums, and Prisons in Western Europe and North America, 1500–1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and the German Historical Institute, 1996). The work of all of these scholars has elicited criticism, and Elias has perhaps received more than his fair share. Hans Peter Duerr, an ethnologist, has criticized the very foundation of Elias’s work in his massive Der Mythos von Zivilisationsprozess , 4 vols. (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp 1988–97), which denies the sense of shame that Elias saw increasingly serving to repress violence is natural to
Houston, Literacy in Early Modern Europe: Culture and Education, 1500–1800 (London and New York: Longman, 1988). Also treating issues relating to unwritten culture are several of the essays in Peter Burke, The Historical Anthropology of Early Modern Italy: Essays on Perception and Communication (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
- and in Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds.), Essays in the Social History of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). Similarly useful is Henri-Jean Martin, “Culture écrite et culture orale, culture savante et culture populaire dans la France d’Ancien Régime,” Journal des savantes (1975), pp. 225–82. Oral transmission of news and images of violence affected both percep- tions of violence and events in our period. The classic study of rural riot due to rumors is Georges Lefebvre, The Great Fear of 1789 , trans. by Joan White (New York: Pantheon Books, 1973). Also key on the role of orally transmitted information and its role in public-order problems like rioting and creating a general sense of insecurity is the work of Arlette Farge, “L’insécurité à Paris: un thème familier au XVIII e^ siècle,” Temps libre 10 (1984), pp. 35–43, and, with Jacques Revel, The Rules of rebellion: Child Abduction in Paris in 1750 , trans. by Claudia Miéville (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991). Traditional images of violence and violent entertainments are the subjects of James B. Twitchell, Preposterous Violence: Fables of Aggression in Modern Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), especially pp. 48–89. Popular-print culture is accessible in a number of works. Broadsheets and the range of subjects they covered may be explored in David Kunzle, The Early Comic Strip: Narrative Strips and Picture Stories in the European Broadsheet, c. 1450–1825 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973); Walter Strauss (ed.), The German Single-Leaf Woodcut, 1500–1600: A Pictorial Catalogue , 3 vols. (New York: Abaris Books, 1975); and Dorothy Alexander and Walter Strauss (eds.), The German Single-Leaf Woodcut, 1600–1700: A Pictorial Catalogue , 2 vols. (New York: Abaris Books, 1977). English prints relating to crime and justice may be examined in James A. Sharpe, Crime and Law in English Satirical Prints, 1600–1832 (Cambridge: Chadwyck-Healey, 1986). Suggestive of the range of pamphlets and small books in French is a comprehensive catalog of the Bibliothèque bleue , Alfred Morin, Catalogue descriptif de la Bibliothèque bleue de Troyes (Almanachs exclus) (Geneva: Droz, 1975). There are a number of fundamental studies of books and pamphlets, their readers, and circulation within various early modern states. The popular-print culture of the Dutch Republic may be sampled in A. T. Van Deursen, Plain Lives in a Golden Age: Popular Culture, Religion and Society in Seventeenth-Century Holland , trans. by Maarten Ultee
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). On England see Bernard Capp, “Popular Literature” in Barry Reay (ed.), Popular Culture in Seventeenth-Century England (London: Croom Helm, 1985), pp. 198–243, and Margaret Spufford, Small Books and Pleasant Histories: Popular Fiction and Its Readership in Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). On France the work of Roger Chartier is fundamental, especially The Cultural Uses of Print in Early Modern France trans. by Lydia G. Cochrane (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987) and a work edited jointly with Hans-Jürgen Lüsebrink, Colportage et lecture populaire: imprimés de large circulation en Europe, XVI e–XIX e^ siècles (Paris: IMEC Editions and Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1996). On Spain there is E. Larriba, Le public et la presse en Espagne à la fin du XVIIIe^ siècle (1781–1808) (Paris: H. Champion, 1998) and Joaquin Marco, Literatura popular en España en los siglos XVIII y XIX (una aproximación a los pliegos de cordel ), 2 vols. (Madrid: Taurus Ediciones, 1977). Works on the peddlers who distrib- uted much of this literature include Jean-François Botrel, “Les aveugles colporteurs d’imprimés en Espagne,” Mélanges de la Casa de Velazquez 9 (1973), pp. 417–82, and 10 (1974), pp. 233–71, and Laurence Fontaine, History of Pedlars in Europe, trans. by Vicki Whittaker (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996). Crime and violence in popular literature are accessible in two ways. First, there are a number of modern published collections of popular works on these themes, including Roger Chartier (ed.), Figures de la gueuserie (Paris: Editions Montalba, 1982); Arthur V. Judges (ed.), The Elizabethan Underworld (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1930); Andrew Knapp and William Baldwin (eds.), The Complete Newgate Calendar , 5 vols. (1824–28; reprinted, London: the Navarre Society, 1926); Hans-Jürgen Lüsebrink (ed.), Histoires curieuses et véritables de Cartouche et de Mandrin (Paris: Editions Montalba, 1984); Joseph H. Marshburn and Alan R. Velie (eds.), Blood and Knavery:A Collection of English Renaissance Pamphlets and Ballads of Crime and Sin (Rutherford, Madison, and Teaneck: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1973); and Gamini Salgado (ed.), Cony- Catchers and Bawdy Baskets (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1972). Second, there are a number of critical studies of the popular literature of crime and violence, including: Ian A. Bell, Literature and Crime in Augustan England (London and New York: Routledge, 1991); Florike Egmond, “The Noble and Ignoble Bandit: Changing Literary Representations of West European Robbers,” Ethnologia Europaea 17 (1987), pp. 139–56; Lincoln B. Faller, Turned to Account: The Forms and Functions of Criminal Biography in Late Seventeenth- and Early Eighteenth- Century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987);
several works by Charles Tilly, including Coercion, Capital, and European States, A.D. 990–1990 (Cambridge: Basil Blackwell, 1990) and The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975). The issue of arms in the hands of private individuals factors in almost all historical study of violence in the early modern period. On the ways in which arms of all sorts found employment, see Sydney Anglo, The Martial Arts of Renaissance Europe (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000). On the availability of artillery, see M. S. Anderson, War and Society in Europe of the Old Regime, 1618–1789 (London: Fontana Press, 1988). There are also studies of the presence of arms in various states. On the Dutch Republic A. T. Van Deursen offers an interesting discussion of Dutch knife fighting in Plain Lives in a Golden Age: Popular Culture, Religion and Society in Seventeenth-Century Holland. On weapons in England the fun- damental work is Joyce Lee Malcolm, To Keep and Bear Arms: The Origins of an Anglo-American Right (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), while Lawrence Stone, The Crisis of the Aristocracy, 1558– (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965) assesses the problem of livery and maintenance within the larger perspective of English history. For France’s problems with private arms, see Yves-Marie Bercé, History of Peasant Revolts: The Social Roots of Rebellion in Early Modern France , trans. by Amanda Whitmore (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Philippe Contamine, “L’armement des populations urbaines à la fin du Moyen Age: l’exemple de Troyes (1474)” in Philippe Contamine and Olivier Guyotjeannin (eds.), La guerre, la violence et les gens au Moyen Age , vol.2, Guerre et gens [ Actes du 119e^ congrès national des sociétés savantes. Section d’histoire médiévale et de philologie ] (Paris: Editions du Comité des Travaux historiques et scientifiques, 1996), pp. 59–72; and Julius R. Ruff, Crime, Justice and Public Order in Old Regime France:The Sénéchaussées of Libourne and Bazas, 1696–1789 , especially pp. 146–47. The problem of arms in Italy may be followed in the works of John K. Brackett, Criminal Justice and Crime in Late Renaissance Florence, 1537–1609 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Gaetano Cozzi (ed.), Stato, società e giustizia nella repubblica Veneta (sec. XV–XVIII) 2 vols. (Rome: Jouvence, 1980); Luciano Allegra, “Stato e monopolio del controllo sociale: il caso del Piemonte” in Allesandro Pastore and Paolo Sorcinelli (eds.), Emarginazione, criminalità e devianza in Italia fra ’600 e ’900. Problemi e indicazioni di ricera (Milan: Franco Angeli, 1990); and Frank McArdle, Altopascio: A Study in Tuscan Rural Society, 1587–1784 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978). For arms in Spain, see Henry Kamen, “Public Authority and Popular Cime: Banditry in Valencia, 1660–1714,” Journal of European Economic History 3 (1974), pp. 654–
and Mary Elizabeth Perry, Crime and Society in Early Modern Seville (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1980). The nobility in our period wielded a great deal of power that today is the possession of the centralized nation state. The problem of this non- state violence, whether in feuds to settle scores or in other forms, has been studied very extensively in German-speaking areas. Still fundamental is a work originally published in 1939, Otto Brunner, Land and Lordship: Structures of Governance in Medieval Austria , trans. by Howard Kaminsky and James van Horn Melton (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992). A modern reassessment of noble military power and its use in feuds is Hillay Zmora, Feuding and Lordship in Early Modern Germany: The Knightly Feud in Franconia, 1450–1567 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). The late sixteenth century and the seventeenth century produced developments in tactics and firepower, strategy, military organization, and the sheer scale of warfare that, in the opinion of a number of histo- rians, constituted a “military revolution” that had extraordinarily wide implications for government. Indeed, some historians aver that military developments called into being the modern bureaucratic state to meet armies’ needs. The seminal essay by Michael Roberts, “The Military Revolution” in his Essays in Swedish History (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1967) initiated the debate on this subject, to which Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Revolution and the Rise of the West, 1500–1800 , 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
- is a key addition. Excellent overviews of early modern armies may be found in the work of M. S. Anderson cited above; J. R. Hale, War and Society in Renaissance Europe, 1450–1620 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985); and Frank Tallett, War and Society in Early-Modern Europe, 1495–1715 (London and New York: Routledge, 1992). The siege warfare that so dominated the age’s military campaigns is examined in Christopher Duffy, Siege Warfare: The Fortress in the Early Modern World, 1494–1660 (London and New York: Routledge, 1979), while John Lynne, “The trace italienne and the Growth of Armies: The French Case,” The Journal of Military History 55 (1995), pp. 297–330, examines the conse- quences of new fortification techniques on military practice. The problems raised by mercenary armies are the subject of several excellent works, including Fritz Redlich, The German Military Enterpriser and His Work Force. A Study in European Economic and Social History , 2 vols. (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1964–65) and Michael E. Mallett, Mercenaries and their Masters in Renaissance Italy (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1974). General problems of military administra- tion, including finance, recruiting, and supply, may be explored in André
excellent study by Myron P. Gutmann, War and Rural Life in the Early Modern Low Countries (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980). See also A. T. Van Deursen, “Holland’s Experience of War during the Revolt of the Netherlands” in A. C. Duke and C. A. Tamse (eds.), Britain and the Netherlands , vol. VI, War and Society (The Hague: Martinius Nijhoff, 1977), pp. 19–53. The artistic repercussions of military violence on the Netherlands’ civilians is accessible in Jane Susanna Fishman, “‘Boerenverdriet’: Violence between Peasants and Soldiers in the Art of the Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Netherlands” (Ph.D. disserta- tion, University of California, Berkeley; UMI Dissertation Services, 1979). For soldiers’ violence in France, see Patrick Landier, “Etude quantitative d’une année de violences, en France, pendant la guerre de Trente Ans,” Histoire, économie et société 2 (1982), pp. 187–212. Historical studies of early modern peasant rebellions and riots are treated in Chapter Seven. Works specifically addressing the use of mili- tary force to counter these events include Charles Tilly, “War Making and State Making as Organized Crime” in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol (eds.), Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). English historians have looked at military interventions in crowd actions, notable studies being Anthony Babington, Military Intervention in Britain:From the Gordon Riots to the Gibraltar Incident (London: Routledge, 1990) and Clive Emsley, “The Military and Popular Disorder in England, 1790–1801,” Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research 61 (1983), pp. 10–21, 96–112.
Chapter 3 Justice
The development of formal criminal jurisprudence in western Europe may be traced in several works. General studies include John Dawson, A History of Lay Judges (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960); Adhémar Esmein, A History of Continental Criminal Procedure, with Special Reference to France , trans. by John Simpson (Boston: Little, Brown, 1913); Petrus Wernus Adam Immink, La liberté et la peine: Etudes sur la transfor- mation de la liberté et le développement du droit pénal en Occident avant le XIIe siècle (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1973); John H. Langbein, Prosecuting Crime in the Renaissance: England, Germany, and France (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974); and Bruce Lenman and Geoffrey Parker, “The State, the Community and the Criminal Law in Early Modern Europe” in V. A. C. Gatrell, Bruce Lenman, and Geoffrey Parker (eds.), The Social History of Crime in Western Europe since 1500 (London: Europa, 1980), pp. 11–48. A particularly informative anthology of recent work is Xavier Rousseaux and René Lévy (eds.), Le pénal dans tous ses états: Justice, états et
sociétés en Europe (XIIe–XIX e^ siècles) (Brussels: Publications des Facultés universitaires Saint-Louis, 1997). The studies of German historians, in particular, have yielded great insight on the penetration of the state and its law into rural early modern Europe. The work of Peter Blickle is particularly noteworthy, including his recent edited work, the Resistance, Representation, and Community in The Origins of the Modern State in Europe series (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997). Also key are Thomas Robisheaux, Rural Society and the Search for Order in Early Modern Germany ; David Sabean, Power in the Blood: Popular Culture and Village Discourse in Early Modern Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); and Karl Wegert, Popular Culture, Crime, and Social Control in Eighteenth-Century Württemberg (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1994). For areas outside Germany, see Thomas Brennan, “Police and Private Order in Early Modern France,” Criminal Justice Review 13 (1988), pp. 1–13; Cynthia Herrup, The Common Peace: Participation and the Common Law in Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); José Luis de las Heras Santos, La justicia penal de los Austrias en la Corona de Castilla (Salamanca: Universidad de Salamanca, 1991); Steve Hindle, “The Keeping of the Public Peace” in Paul Griffiths, Adam Fox, and Steve Hindle (eds.), The Experience of Authority in Early Modern England (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), pp. 213–35; the massive work of Tomás Antonio Mantecón Movellán, Conflictividad y disciplina- mento social en la Cantabria rural del Antiguo Régimen (Santander: Fundació Marcelino Botín and Universidad de Cantabria, 1992), which examines both judicial and extrajudicial modes of dispute resolution; Robert Muchembled, Le temps des supplices. De l’obéissance sous les rois absolus, XVe–XVIIIe^ siècles (Paris: Armand Colin, 1992); Steven G. Reinhardt, “Crime and Royal Justice in Ancien Régime France: Modes of Analysis,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 13 (1983), pp. 437–60; Enrique Villalba Pérez, La administración de la justicia penal en Castilla y en la corte a comienzos del siglo XVII (Madrid: Actas, 1993); and Keith Wrightson, “Two Concepts of Order: Justices, Constables and Jurymen in Seventeenth-Century England” in John Brewer and John Styles (eds.), An Ungovernable People: The English and their Law in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press), pp. 21–46. The social bases for expanding local support for state law may be discovered of in Keith Wrightson and David Levin, Poverty and Piety in an English Village: Terling, 1525–1700 , 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); the works of Robisheaux, such as Rural Society mentioned above; and Yves Castan, Honnêteté et rélations sociales en Languedoc, 1715–1780 (Paris: Plon, 1974).
Africa (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1955), pp. 1–26; Edward Muir, Mad Blood Stirring: Vendetta and Factions in Friuli during the Renaissance (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); J. G. Peristiany (ed.), Honour and Shame: The Values of Mediterranean Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966); Julian Pitt-Rivers (ed.), Mediterranean Countrymen: Essays in the Social Anthropology of the Mediterranean (Paris: Mouton, 1963); Angelo Torre, “Feuding, Factions, and Parties: The Redefinition of Politics in the Imperial Fiefs of Langhe in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries” in Edward Muir and Guido Ruggiero (eds.), History from Crime , trans. by Corrada Biazzo Curry et al. (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), pp. 135–69; J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, “The Bloodfeud of the Franks,” Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 41 (1959), pp. 459–87; Stephen D. White, “Feuding and Peace-Making in the Touraine around the Year 1100,” Traditio 42 (1986), pp. 195–263; Steven Wilson, Feuding, Conflict, and Banditry in Nineteenth-Century Corsica (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); and Jenny Wormald, “The Bloodfeud in Early Modern Scotland” in John Bossy (ed.), Disputes and Settlements: Law and Human Relations in the West (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 101–44. Ecclesiastical leaders and institutions also defined and enforced stan- dards of behavior and mediated disputes in our period. On ecclesiastical institutions’ judgments see Bartholomé Bennassar, “Les sources inquisi- toriales espagnoles et l’histoire de la criminalité” in Benoît Garnot (ed.), Histoire et criminalité de l’antiquité au XX e^ siècle: nouvelles approches (Dijon: Presses universitaires de Dijon, 1992), pp. 61–66; Ralph A. Houlbrooke, Church Courts and the People during the English Reformation, 1520– (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979); Martin J. Ingram, Church Courts, Sex and Marriage in England, 1570–1640 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Ronald A. Marchant, The Church under the Law: Justice, Administration and Discipline in the Diocese of York, 1560– (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); Didier Poton, “Les délibérations consistoriales, une source pour l’histoire de la violence” in Garnot, Histoire et criminalité de l’antiquité au XX e^ siècle , pp. 67–73; and Jan Sundin, “Control, Punishment and Reconciliation: A Case Study of Parish Justice in Sweden before 1850” in Anders Brändström and Jan Sundin (eds.), Tradition and Transition: Studies in Microdemography and Social Change (Lineå, Sweden: The Demographic Data Base, 1981), pp. 9–65. A still-provocative introduction to accommodation, both formal and informal, is Alfred Soman, “Deviance and Criminal Justice in Western Europe, 1300–1800: An Essay in Structure,” Criminal Justice History : 1
(1980), pp. 3–28. Another excellent introduction is Xavier Rousseaux, “Entre accommodement local et contrôle étatique: pratiques judiciaires et non-judicaires dans le règlement des conflits en Europe médiéval et moderne” in Garnot, L’infrajudiciaire , pp. 87–107. The French experi- ence has been most extensively studied, with works by Benoît Garnot, “Justice, infrajustice, parajustice et extrajustice,” Crime, histoire et sociétés/Crime, History and Societies 4 (1) (2000), pp. 103–20; Nicole Castan, including “The Arbitration of Disputes under the ‘Ancien Régime’” in Bossy, Disputes and Settlements , pp. 219–26; Yves Castan, Honnêteté et relations sociales en Languedoc, 1715–1780 (which reproduces text of an accommodation); and Reinhardt, Justice in the Sarladais, 1770–1790. For a wider perspective, see Garnot, L’infrajudiciaire and Renate Ago, “Conflitti e politica nel feudo: le campagne romane del Settacento,” Quaderni storici 21 (1986), pp. 847–74; Catherine Clemens- Denys, “Les apaiseurs de Lille à la fin de l’Ancien Régime,” Revue du Nord 77 (1995), pp. 13–38; Marie-Sylvie Dupont-Bouchat and Xavier Rousseaux, “Le prix de sang: sang et justice du XIV e^ au XVIIIe^ siècle,” Mentalités 1:Affaires de sang , ed. by Arlette Farge (Paris: Imago, 1988), pp. 43–72; Michael Frank, Dörfliche Gesellschaft und Kriminalität: Das Fallspiel Lippe, 1650–1800 (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1995); Thomas A. Mantecón, “Meaning and the Social Context of Crime in Preindustrial Times: Rural Society in the North of Spain, 17th and 18th Centuries,” Crime, histoire et sociétés/Crime, History and Societies 2 (1998), pp. 49–73; Osvaldo Raggio, Faide e parentele: lo stato genevese vista dalla Fontanabuona (Turin: Einaudi, 1990); Xavier Rousseaux, “Le prix de sang versé. La cour des ‘apaisiteurs’ à Nivelles (1430–1665),” Bulletin trimestriel du Crédit Communale , no. 175 (1991), pp. 45–56. Finally, the decision to move from infrajudicial to judicial modes of resolving disputes is the subject of several insightful studies in François Billacois and Hugues Neveux (eds.), “Porter plainte: stratégies village- oises et institutions judiciaires en Ile-de-France (XVII e^ –XVIII e^ siècles),” Droit et cultures 19 (1990), pp. 7–142. See also Philippe Henry, Crime, justice et société dans le principauté de Neuchâtel au XVIIIe^ siècle (1707–1806) (Neuchâtel: La Baconnière, 1984). The body of historical scholarship on early modern policing is large and growing. Excellent overviews of the problem of policing in the context of state development are available in Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, A.D. 900–1990 and in the same author’s edited work, The Formation of National States in Western Europe , especially Chapter Five, “The Police and Political Development in Europe” by David H. Bayley. General studies of police history include those of Jean- Claude Monet, Police et société en Europe (Paris: La Documentation
histories: Joan R. Kent, The English Village Constable: A Social and Administrative Study (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986) and Norma Landau, The Justice of the Peace, 1679–1760 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984). See also the case study of the inves- tigative methods of a justice of the peace: William Robinson, “Murder at Crowhurst: A Case Study in Early Tudor Law Enforcement,” Criminal Justice History 9 (1988), pp. 31–62. Historical scholarship is less extensive on early modern policing outside France and England. On the Dutch Republic there is a brief treat- ment of police within the work of Jonathan Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995). On sixteenth-century Florence we have the study of the Otto di Guardia, an institution with wide-ranging police and judicial powers, by Brackett, Criminal Justice and Crime in Late Renaissance Florence, 1537–1609; on Germany Robert W. Scribner, “Police and the Territorial State in Sixteenth-Century Württemberg” in E. I. Kouri and Tom Scott (eds.), Politics and Society in Reformation Europe (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987), pp. 103–20 as well as Matthias Weber, Die schlesischen Polizei und Landesordnungen der frühen Neuzeit (Köln: Böhlau Verlag, 1996). On Spain there is Marvin Lunenfeld, The Council of the Santa Hermandad: A Study of the Pacification Forces of Ferdinand and Isabella (Coral Gables: University of Miami Press, 1970). Beyond these we must rely on brief treatments of policing within works on the crime problem, many of which are surveyed below in Chapter Four. Research into torture has produced a small but distinguished group of studies. Essential general works include Piero Fiorelli, La tortura giudizi- aria nel diritto comune , 2 vols. (Milan: Giuffrè, 1953–54); the old but still useful work of Henry Charles Lea, Torture (1866; reprinted, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1973); and Edward Peters, Torture (Oxford and New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985). Works basic to the 1500–1800 period include Marie-France Brun-Janson, “Criminalité et répression pénale au siècle des Lumières. L’exemple du Parlement de Grenoble,” Revue historique de droit français et étranger 76 (1998), pp. 343–69; Luigi Cajani, “Pena di morte e tortura a Roma nel Settecenta” in Luigi Berlinguer and Floriana Colao (eds.), Criminalità e società in età moderna (Milan: Giuffrè, 1991), pp. 517–47; Marie-Sylvie Dupont- Bouchat, “Criminal Law and Human Rights in Western Europe (14th–18th centuries): The Example of Torture and Punishment. Theory and Practice” in Wolfgang Schmale (ed.), Human Rights and Cultural Diversity: Europe, Arabic-Islamic World, Africa, China (Goldbach: Keip Publishing, 1993), pp. 183–97; Elizabeth Hanson, “Torture and Truth in Renaissance England,” Representations 34 (1991), pp. 53–84; James
Heath, Torture and English Law: An Administrative and Legal History from the Plantagenets to the Stuarts (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982); the seminal work of John H. Langbein, Torture and the Law of Proof: Europe and England in the Ancien Régime (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
- on the abolition of torture; Louis-Bernard Mer, “La procédure criminelle au XVIII e^ siècle: l’enseignement des archives bretonnes,” Revue historique 274 (1985), pp. 9–42; Véronique Pinson-Ramin, “La torture judiciaire en Bretagne au XVIII e^ siècle,” Revue historique de droit français et étranger 72 (1994), pp. 549–68; Bernd Roeck, “Criminal Procedure in the Holy Roman Empire,” International Association for the History of Crime and Criminal Justice Bulletin , no. 18 (1993), pp. 21–40; Bernard Schnapper, Voies nouvelles en histoire du droit: la justice, la famille, la répression pénale (XVIème–XXème^ siècles ) (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1991); and Alfred Soman, “La justice criminelle aux XVIe–XVIIe siècles: Le Parlement de Paris et les sièges subalternes” in Alfred Soman, Sorcellerie et justice criminelle: Le Parlement de Paris (16e–18 e^ siècles ) (Brookfield, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company/Variorum, 1992). Early modern public capital punishment has produced a number of provocative historical studies. Still fundamental, because it formed the basis of historians’ debate on this subject for more than a quarter of a century, is Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Also of use in framing the issues raised by public execution are David Garland, Punishment and Modern Society: A Study in Social Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990) and especially Wegert, Popular Culture, Crime, and Social Control in Eighteenth-Century Württemberg. General works on penalties include volumes 56 and 57 of the Recueils de la Société Jean Bodin pour l’histoire comparative des institu- tions (Brussels: De Boeck Université, 1988–89), which are entirely devoted to penology within a large number of European states, as well as Mitchell B. Merback, The Thief, the Cross, and the Wheel: Pain and the Spectacle of Punishment in Medieval and Renaissance Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press and Reaktion Books, 1999). There are also a number of studies based on punishment in individual countries, some of which have already been noted above with the works on torture. In addition, on the Dutch Republic there is the important study by Pieter Spierenburg, The Spectacle of Suffering: Executions and the Evolution of Repression: From a Preindustrial Metropolis to the European Experience (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), which uses the work of Norbert Elias to present an important alternative to Foucault that places the decline of public execution much earlier than the nine- teenth century. Also significant is the work of Anton Blok, “The Symbolic Vocabulary of Public Executions” in June Starr and Jane F. Collier (eds.),
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) draws on research in Augsburg to consider executioners as part of the social group known in Germany as unehrliche Leute , that is, people considered dishonorable because of their particular occupations. In addition, there is the diary of an executioner, Albrecht Keller (ed.), A Hangman’s Diary, being the Journal of Master Franz Schmidt, Public Executioner of Nuremberg, 1573–1617 , trans. by C. Calvert and A. W. Gruner (London: Philip Alan and Co., 1928).
Chapter 4 The discourse of interpersonal violence
Historical research on homicide and assault constitutes part of a relatively new area of social history concerned with the general problem of crime. The volume of scholarship in this field has grown immensely since the initial research on the history of crime in the 1960s by students of Pierre Chaunu at the University of Caen – the first was Bernadette Boutelet, “Etude par sondage de la criminalité dans le bailliage de Pont de l’Arche (XVII e–XVIII e^ siècles),” Annales de Normandie 12 (1962), pp. 253–62 – and researchers at the University of Paris: Yves-Marie Bercé, “La noblesse rurale du Sud-Ouest sous Louis XIII: De la criminalité aux troubles sociales,” Annales du Midi 76 (1964), pp. 41–59, and Jean Imbert (ed.), Quelques procès criminels des XVIIe^ et XVIII e^ siècles (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1964). The evolving maturity of the field is reflected in the appearance of spe- cialized journals on the history of crime and justice in the United States, with Criminal Justice History (1980– ), and in Europe, first with the Newsletter (subsequently Bulletin) of the International Association for the History of Crime and Criminal Justice (IAHCCJ) (1978–96), and now with Crime, histoire et sociétés/Crime, History and Societies (1997– ). Works synthesizing historical research on the problem of violent crime across national boundaries are virtually nonexistent, except for Michael Weisser, Crime and Punishment in Early Modern Europe (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1979), a book completed early in the development of the historical study of crime and therefore unreflective of the large body of scholarship published in the 1980s and 1990s. Two excel- lent recent collections of historical studies of crime and justice,however,do suggest the present-day breadth of the field: Clive Emsley and Louis A. Knafla (eds.), Crime History and Histories of Crime: Studies in the Historiography of Crime and Criminal Justice in Modern History (Westport, CT:Greenwood Press,1996) and Eric A.Johnson and Eric H.Monkkonen (eds.), The Civilization of Crime: Violence in Town and Country since the Middle Ages (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996). In addition,
several recent works by Xavier Rousseaux summarize developments in the area of crime and criminal-justice history and provide exceptionally detailed bibliographies of writings on all aspects of crime and justice for western Europe: “Crime, Justice, and Society in Medieval and Early Modern Times: Thirty Years of Crime and Criminal Justice History: A Tribute to Herman Diederiks,” Crime,histoire et sociétés/Crime,History and Societies 1 (1997), pp. 87–118; “Criminality and Criminal Justice History in Europe, 1250–1850: A Select Bibliography,” Criminal Justice History 14 (1993), pp. 159–81; “From Medieval Cities to National States, 1350–1850: The Historiography of Crime and Criminal Justice in Europe” in Emsley and Knafla, Crime History and Histories of Crime , pp. 3–32; and, with René Lévy, “Etats, justice pénale et histoire: bilans et per- spectives,” Droit et société 20–21 (1992), pp. 249–79. On England see Joanna Innes and John Styles,“The Crime Wave:Recent Writing on Crime and Criminal Justice in Eighteenth-Century England,” Journal of British Studies 25 (1986), pp. 380–455; for a German perspective see J. Eibach, “Neue historische Literatur: Kriminalitätsgeschichte zwischen Sozialgeschichte und historischer Kulturforschung,” Historische Zeitschrift 223 (1996), pp. 581–715, and G. Schwerhoff, “Devianz in der alteuropäis- cher Gesellschaft. Umrise einer historischen Kriminalitätsforschung,” Zeitschrift für historische Forschung 19 (1992), pp. 385–414. On Scandinavia consult Eva Osterberg, “Gender, Class, and the Courts: Scandinavia” in Emsley and Knafla, Crime History and Histories of Crime , pp. 47–65. Historians have critically analyzed the sources for the study of violent crime and the methods employed in studying crime history in a number of works, some of which have become classics of historical analysis: Yves-Marie Bercé and Yves Castan (eds.), Les archives du délit: empreintes de société (Toulouse : Editions universitaires du Sud, 1990); Benoît Garnot, “Une illusion historiographique: justice et criminalité au XVIII e siècle,” Revue historique 281 (1989), pp. 361–80, and “Pour une histoire nouvelle de la criminalité au XVIII e^ siècle,” Revue historique 288 (1993), pp. 289–303; V. A. C. Gatrell and T. B. Hadden, “Criminal Statistics and their Interpretation” in E. A. Wrigley (ed.), Nineteenth-Century Society: Essays in the Use of Quantitative Methods for the Study of Social Data (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), pp. 336–96; Bruce Lenman and Geoffrey Parker, “The State, the Community and the Criminal Law in Early Modern Europe” in V. A. C. Gatrell et al. , Crime and the Law: The Social History of Crime in Western Europe since 1500 ; Steven G. Reinhardt, “Crime and Royal Justice in Ancien Régime France: Modes of Analysis,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 13 (1983), pp. 437–60; and Alfred Soman, “Deviance and Criminal Justice in Western Europe, 1300–1800: An Essay in Structure.” Also informative is
