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She also suggests that the prostitute may be symbolic of the “Great Mother” from Babylon's creation myth, the. Enuma Elish. Collins, John J. The Apocalyptic ...
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By
JANA M. SWARTWOOD
November 2011
A Thesis Proposal
Submitted to the Theological Faculty
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
MASTER OF ARTS IN BIBLICAL LITERATURE (JUDAIC-CHRISTIAN STUDIES)
Jana M. Swartwood, Master of Arts in Biblical Literature (Judaic-Christian Studies)
“Babylon the Great, Mother of Harlots”: Revelation 17-18 in its Old Testament Context
Brad H. Young, Ph.D.
Many scholars interpret the “Harlot of Babylon” Interlude in Revelation 17-18 as
a vision predicting the fall and subsequent disgrace of the Roman Empire. While there is
certainly much evidence to support this assertion, a reading of this passage in light of its
Jewish context also points to a strong Old Testament foundation, primarily from the Book
of Isaiah. This leads to the question: Is there a fundamentally Jewish sub-meaning
underlying the “Harlot” interlude in Revelation 17-18? It is important to examine this
passage in light of its Jewish roots, in order to better understand the author’s message to
his readers, both in the time of his writing and in the current era.
Chapter 1 introduces the background and significance of the topic, as well as
initial evidence linking the “Harlot” Interlude with Isaiah 47. Chapter 2 presents an
exegetical analysis of Isaiah 47:1-15, in an attempt to determine the heart and context of
its original message. Chapter 3 presents an exegetical analysis of Revelation 17:1-7, 15-
18; and 18:1-8 that is informed by Isaiah 47 and other relevant Jewish sources from the
period. Chapter 4 evaluates the possible connection between the two passages and
suggests a possible understanding of the “Harlot” passage for readers in the present time.
Background and Statement of the Problem
The Book of Revelation is viewed by scholars as having been written in the genre
of “apocalypse.” Apocalypses are similar to prophetic works in that both forms express
revelation from God. However, apocalypses differ in that they are typically a first-person
account from an individual who has been given revelation by a figure other than God—
often, as in the case of John’s apocalypse, an angel.^1 The Book of Revelation presents a
vision in which John of Patmos is transported to heaven in order to witness the cosmic
struggle between good and evil at the end of time. Between the judgment scenes
concluding in Revelation 16 and the victory of the Lamb in Revelation 19, one finds an
interlude devoted to the “Harlot of Babylon” and her ultimate destruction.
Interpretations of this interlude are vast and varied. Most commonly, the “Harlot”
is viewed as representing Rome. First, she sits upon a beast with seven heads (often
taken to symbolize the seven hills upon which Rome was founded). Second, as R. H.
Charles notes, although she is called “Babylon,” other sources from this time have used
(^1) Adela Yarbro Collins, “Apocalyptic Themes in Biblical Literature,”
Interpretation 53, no. 2 (1999): 117.
1
the term “Babylon” to indicate “Rome,” and there is good reason to believe the author of
Revelation did the same.^2 The evidence suggests that this is an accurate reading of the
passage.
However, a closer reading of Revelation 17-18 (and, in truth, much of the Book of
Revelation) also shows that John’s apocalyptic message seems grounded in a firm
foundation of Hebrew Scripture.^3 In this case, it is Isaiah 47 that seems to parallel
Revelation 17-18’s image of Babylon, as a woman who has been stripped and left in
degradation—a queen, but not a widow. With such close parallels found between Isaiah
47 and the “Harlot” Interlude in Revelation, it seems significant to pursue the Isaian
foundation of the passage, in order to better understand John’s message and his purpose
in conveying it. Might this passage contain a theological message of greater depth than
“Rome will be destroyed?” That is the subject of this study.
Thesis Statement
Does a fundamentally Jewish sub-meaning, informed by Isaiah 47 and other
relevant texts, underlie the “Harlot” Interlude of Revelation 17-18?
(^2) R. H. Charles, “A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on The Revelation of St.
John,” The International Critical Commentary , vol. 2 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1966): 62.
(^3) Jan Fekkes III, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions in the Book of Revelation , vol.
93, Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series (Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994): 17.
observe a connection between the “Harlot” of Revelation 17-18 and the “Daughter of
Babylon” in Isaiah 47, there does not yet appear to be a work that focuses specifically on
the intertextuality of these two texts. The writer of this thesis seeks to bridge that gap.
Delimitations and Limitations
Although this thesis may acknowledge the preterist, historical, idealist, and
futurist schools of thought concerning the interpretation of Revelation, it is not the intent
of the writer to examine the Revelation texts specifically from one of these points of
view. Thus, there will be no lengthy discussion pertaining to these schools of thought.
Also, this study will focus on the Revelation passages dealing specifically with
the “Harlot” Interlude. Thus, it is intentional that Revelation 17:8-14 and Revelation
18:9-24 be left of out Chapter 3’s exegesis. It is not the intent of the writer to ignore
these passages, but rather, to limit the scope of this work. Also, as much as is possible,
this work will refrain from making specific determinations concerning “the Beast” in the
“Harlot” Interlude, except as it relates specifically to the nature and purpose of the Harlot
herself or to the theological interpretation of the text.
The scholarly literature reveals that there exists much evidence to support a
unified Book of Isaiah, as well as much evidence to support a Second Isaiah and a Third
Isaiah (written after the exile to Babylon). It is not the intent of the writer of this thesis to
quibble over the date(s) or authorship of Isaiah. Insofar as it relates to the interpretation
of the text, Isaiah 47 will be viewed as part of Second Isaiah.
Finally, it will be important for the writer of this thesis to consult all possible
sources in the crafting of this thesis, as well as examine the variants in the manuscripts
for Isaiah 47:1-15 and Revelation 17-18. However, the writer may not have access to all
textual manuscripts, given that her location is fixed in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and the expense
of travel and interlibrary loans may prohibit her from being able to review all possible
manuscripts. Also, having studied both Hebrew and Greek at the seminary level for only
a few years, she does not wish to insinuate that her translations of the texts are of greater
accuracy than seasoned scholars in the field. Rather, she hopes to remain open to those
scholars’ translations and observations and to regard them as relevant guides when she
encounters areas of difficulty in making an accurate translation.
Definition of Terms
It is important to distinguish between the terms “eschatology” and “apocalypse,”
as they relate to Revelation. Without delving into the vast discourse that surrounds these
two terms, “eschatology” may be understood as a fairly developed doctrine of “the last
things” that implies that a current world order will be overthrown and a new one
established.^4 “Apocalypse” may be understood as “revelations of heavenly secrets.”^5
“Prophecy” may be distinguished from “apocalypse,” in that although it is also a
revelation of the divine, it is a word given directly by God to the prophet. If it foretells
(^4) Sigmund Mowinckel, He That Cometh , trans. G. W. Anderson (New York:
Abingdon Press, 1954): 16-17.
(^5) John J. Collins, “Apocalyptic Eschatology as the Transcendence of Death,”
Catholic Biblical Quarterly 36, no. 1 (1974): 22.
Presuppositions or Assumptions
First and foremost, a high view of Scripture is presupposed. The writer assumes
that the Bible is inspired by God and that, although textual variants may exist, it is
infallible as it relates to faith and practice. The writer also assumes that the Book of
Revelation was written in the form of an “apocalypse” and should not necessarily be
taken literally, unless the message of the text suggests that such was the author’s intent.
It is also assumed that Isaiah 47 is part of Second Isaiah, and that Second Isaiah
was written to a sixth-century B.C. audience. As discussed in an earlier section, it is not
the purpose of this work to debate the merits of one author versus three. The literature
suggests that there is extensive evidence that could support either theory.^8 As it relates to
exegesis of the passage, the assumption here will be that Isaiah 40-66 was written by a
sixth-century author to an audience in Babylonian captivity, rather than by the eighth-
century prophet Isaiah to an independent kingdom.
Another assumption is that the author of the Book of Revelation intended that his
vision reach his audience with a message relevant to his time. At the time of the
submission of this Thesis Proposal, the thesis writer has not yet come to a personal
conclusion as to the dating of the Book of Revelation, though it will be assumed that John
was the author. By the time that the writing phase begins, the writer of this thesis will
have determined her position on this matter. The writer of this thesis believes that the
Book of Revelation should be studied in its historical context, before any further
speculations as to its meaning are made.
(^8) Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40-55: A New Translation with Introduction and
Commentary , Anchor Bible, vol. 19a (New York: Doubleday, 2002): 41-43.
Hypothesis
Isaiah 47 does inform a contextual reading of the “Harlot” Interlude of Revelation
17-18. In order to appropriately understand this passage in Revelation, one must first
possess an understanding of the underlying Isaiah text. If one reads Isaiah 47 as a “song
of mockery” (somewhat akin to Moses and Miriam’s song in Exodus 15). If one
examines the Isaian interlude in light of the broader context in chapters 40-55, one will
see that, in Isaiah, the degradation of Babylon exists to demonstrate that God is sovereign
and that He will redeem His people at the expense of their enemies. Applying this
passage to the broader story in Revelation, then, one also sees that God is demonstrating
how He will draw His people out of a different sort of exile, punish those who kept His
people in captivity, and lead His people into a “new age,” in which they may be present
with Him. The “Harlot” Interlude in Revelation exists as a reminder of the past—God
has redeemed His people and punished their captors in the past, and He will do it again
now. Although times and circumstances may change, God remains the same.
Clifford, Richard J. “The Roots of Apocalypticism in Near Eastern Myth.” In The Continuum History of Apocalypticism , eds. Bernard J. McGinn, John J. Collins, and Stephen J. Stein, 3-29. New York: Continuum, 2003.
Collins, Adela Yarbro. “Feminine Symbolism in the Book of Revelation.” In A Feminist Companion to the Apocalypse of John , ed. Amy-Jill Levine, 121-130. New York: T&T Clark, 2009.
The author discusses three significant female symbols in Revelation: the woman from Revelation 12, the prostitute from Revelation 17, and the bride from Revelation 19-21. These female figures are likened to goddesses from Egyptian and Hellenistic cultures. In particular, she contrasts the prostitute with the bride. She discusses the image of a woman (even a harlot) representing a city, as is found in several of the prophets. However, in the context of Revelation, she suggests that, rather than the prostitute symbolizing the Israelites, she symbolizes Rome, the seductress of all other nations. She also suggests that the prostitute may be symbolic of the “Great Mother” from Babylon’s creation myth, the Enuma Elish.
Collins, John J. The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature. 2nd^ ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
. The Continuum History of Apocalypticism. New York: Continuum, 2003. . The Other in Second Temple Judaism. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011.
Delitzsch, Friedrich. Babel and Bible. Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Co., 1903.
DiTommaso, Lorenzo. “The Apocalyptic Other.” In The “Other” in Second Temple Judaism: Essays in Honor of John J. Collins , eds. Daniel C. Harlow, Karina Martin Hogan, Matthew Goff, and Joel S. Kaminsky, 221-246. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011.
Fekkes, Jan. Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions in the Book of Revelation: Visionary Antecedents and their Developments. Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series 93. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994.
This source begins with a discussion of prophecy versus apocalypse and then transitions to the Book of Revelation. The author works chapter by chapter to identify and discuss references to the Old Testament prophets that may be found in Revelation. This work will be an extremely significant source to this study.
Fishbane, Michael. The Exegetical Imagination: On Jewish Thought and Theology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998.
The entire book provides insight into how one may examine Scripture from a rabbinic mindset. The chapter of primary interest is “The Great Dragon Battle and Talmudic Redaction.” Although it does not deal directly with Revelation 17- 18, it enables the reader to better understand Babylonian mythology concerning the dragon and the rabbinic tradition that may possibly underlie Revelation 17-18.
Flusser, David. Judaism and the Origins of Christianity. Jersusalem: Magnes Press, 1988.
Ford, J. Massyngberde. Revelation. The Anchor Bible. Garden City: Doubleday, 1975.
Franke, Chris A. “Reversals of Fortune in the Ancient Near East: A Study of the Babylon Oracles in the Book of Isaiah.” In New Visions of Isaiah. Vol. 214. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Series, eds. Roy F. Melugin and Marvin A. Sweeney, 104-123. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996.
Ginzberg, Lous. The Legends of the Jews: Bible Times and Characters from the Creation to Jacob. Vol. 1. Translated by Henrietta Szold. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1988.
Although this will not be a primary source for Revelation 17-18, it provides insight into the rabbinic tradition concerning the creation of man and woman and the mythology of Lilith. There may possibly be a connection between the figure of Lilith and the Whore of Babylon. It will be important to examine the Lilith tradition to determine whether such a connection may be made.
Gunkel, Herman. Israel and Babylon: The Influence of Babylon on the Religion of Israel (A Reply to Delitzsch). Philadelphia: John Jos McVey, 1904.
Hislop, Alexander. The Two Babylons: or The Papal Worship: Proven to be the Worship of Nimrod and His Wife. London: S. W. Partridge, 1929.
Ilan, Tal. Silencing the Queen: The Literary Histories of Shelamzion and Other Jewish Women. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2006.
Ironside, H. A. Lectures on the Book of Revelation. Neptune, NJ: Loizeaux Brothers,
Johnson, Alan. Revelation. The Expositor’s Bible Commentary. Vol. 12. Edited by Frank E. Gaebelein. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1981.
Rowland, Christopher. The Book of Revelation: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections. The New Interpreter’s Bible. Vol. 12. Edited by Leander E. Keck. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1998.
. The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity. London: SPCK, 1982.
Stichele, Caroline Vander. “Re-membering the Whore: The Fate of Babylon According to Revelation 17.16.” In A Feminist Companion to the Apocalypse of John , ed. Amy-Jill Levine, 106-120. New York: T&T Clark, 2009.
Sweeney, Marvin A. “The Book of Isaiah as Prophetic Torah.” In New Visions of Isaiah. Vol. 214. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Series, eds. Roy F. Melugin and Marvin A. Sweeney, 50-67. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996.
Walvoord, John. The Revelation of Jesus Christ, a Commentary. Chicago: Moody Press,
Periodicals
Bandy, Alan S. “The Layers of the Apocalypse: An Integrative Approach to Revelation’s Macrostructure.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 31, no. 4 (2009): 469-499.
Biddle, Mark E. “The City of Chaos and the New Jerusalem: Isaiah 24-27 in Context.” Perspectives in Religious Studies 22 (1995): 5-12.
Biguzzi, Giancarlo. “A Figurative and Narrative Language Grammar of Revelation.” Novum Testamentum 45, no. 4 (2003): 382-402.
Brown, Raymond Edward. “The Pre-Christian Semitic Concept of ‘Mystery.’” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 20, no. 4 (1958): 417-433.
Brown, Raymond “Semitic Background of the New Testament Mysterion .” Biblica 39, no. 4 (1958): 426-448.
Brueggeman, Walter. “At the Mercy of Babylon: A Subversive Rereading of the Empire.” Journal of Biblical Literature 110, no. 1 (1991): 3-22.
Callahan, Allen Dwight. “The Language of the Apocalypse.” Harvard Theological Review 88, no. 4 (1995): 453-470.
Collins, Adela Yarbro. “Apocalyptic Themes in Biblical Literature.” Interpretation 53, no. 2 (1999): 117-130.
Collins, John J. "Apocalyptic Eschatology as the Transcendence of Death_._ " The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 36.1 (January 1974): 21-43.
Fekkes III, Jan. “’His Bride has Prepared Herself’: Revelation 19-21 and Isaian Nuptial Imagery.” Journal of Biblical Literature 109, no. 2 (1990): 269-287.
Filho, José Adriano. “The Apocalypse of John as an Account of a Visionary Experience: Notes on the Book’s Structure.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 25, no. 2 (2002): 213-234.
The author argues that the Book of Revelation was written as an “eschatological exhortation for the immediate future,” and that it was intended to be read during liturgical meetings of believers. He argues that the book is best understood in the context of this liturgy. Of primary focus are John’s four main visions (with emphasis on “in the Spirit”). The passages relating to Babylon are indicative of God’s ultimate eschatological victory over His enemies. In the end, he argues that Revelation existed to give hope to those who were suffering. This source will be valuable for its broader background on the possible meaning and focus of Revelation.
Fishelov, David. “The Prophet as Satirist.” Prooftexts 9 (1989): 195-211.
Flusser, David. “A New Sensitivity in Judaism and the Christian Message.” Harvard Theological Review 61, no. 2 (1968): 107-127.
Franke, Chris. “The Function of the Satiric Lament over Babylon in Second Isaiah (XXLVII).” Vetus Testamentum 41, no. 4 (1991): 408-418.
Fredriksen, Paula. “Apocalypse and Redemption in Early Christianity.” Vigiliae Christianae 45 (1991): 151-183.
Freedman, David Noel. “‘Mistress Forever’: A Note on Isaiah 47,7.” Biblica 51, no. 4 (1970): 538.
Giblin, C. H. “Recapitulation and Literary Coherence in John’s Apocalypse.” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 56 no. 1 (1994): 81-95.
Glancy, Jennifer A. and Stephen D. Moore. “How Typical a Roman Prostitute is Revelation’s ‘Great Whore’?” Journal of Biblical Literature 130, no. 3 (2011): 551-569.
The authors examine πόρνη and ἑταίρα (two Greek words for “prostitute”) in the context of Roman prostitution in order to determine the sort of prostitute that the
Koester, Craig R. “Roman Slave Trade and the Critique of Babylon in Revelation 18.” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 70, no. 4 (2008): 766-786.
The author views Revelation as John’s commentary on slavery and examines three key areas: the contrast between Babylonian/Roman slavery and slavery to God; the similarity between the attitude towards slave traders and the attitude toward Babylon; and an analysis of inscriptions that provide information concerning the slave trade in the cities listed in Revelation. This article is valuable in understanding practices relating to slavery during the Roman Empire. It also suggests possible understandings of the theology of Revelation.
Kulik, Alexander. “Genre without a Name: Was There a Hebrew Term for ‘Apocalypse’?” Journal for the Study of Judaism 40 (2009): 540-550.
Laato, Antti. “The Composition of Isaiah 40-55.” Journal of Biblical Literature 109, no. 2 (1990): 207-228.
Ladd, George Eldon. “The Revelation and Jewish Apocalyptic.” The Evangelical Quarterly 29, no. 2 (1957): 94-100.
Matthewson, David. “Assessing Old Testament Allusions in the Book of Revelation.” The Evangelical Quarterly 75, no. 4 (2003): 311-325.
The author begins by defining “allusions” and presenting support from several current scholars for the Old Testament allusions, including “the Whore,” that are found throughout Revelation. He distinguishes between “certain” allusion and “probable” allusion, in an attempt to show that not all allusions may have been intentional on John’s part. He then suggests that scholarly focus should be placed on the theological significance of these allusions, rather than on the debate concerning author’s intent. This source provides valuable information on the intertextuality of Revelation, and it points the reader toward several other significant sources on the subject.
McComisckey, T. E. “Alteration of OT Imagery in the Book of Revelation: Its Hermeneutical and Theological Significance.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 36:3 (1993): 307-316.
McNicol, Allan J. "The Heavenly Sanctuary in Judaism: A Model for Tracing the Origin of the Apocalypse." Journal of Religious Studies 13.2 (1987): 66-94.
Pippin, Tina. “Eros and the End: Reading for Gender in the Apocalypse of John.” Semeia 59 (1992): 193-210.
The author of this article views the Apocalypse as a “misogynist male fantasy of the end of time.” She discusses the imagery of death and desire in the figure of the Whore of Babylon and contrasts the Whore with the Bride seen in heaven. While this article is significant (in that it presents a fairly standard feminist reading of Revelation), it seems to impose its meaning upon the text rather than examine the text from a high view of Scripture.
. “The Heroine and the Whore: Fantasy and the Female in the Apocalypse of John.” Semeia 60 (1992): 67-82.
Roberts, J. J. M. “Isaiah in Old Testament Theology.” Interpretation 36, no. 2 (1982): 130-143.
The author examines several key theological emphases in Isaiah: the “Holy One of Israel,” Yahweh alone as Lord, and the special relationship between Yahweh and Israel. In this discussion is an examination of apocalyptic elements in Isaiah. This work is valuable in that it brings to light thematic elements that are necessary for the interpretation of Isaiah.
Smith, Ian. “A Rational Choice Model of the Book of Revelation.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 85 (2002): 97-116.
Van de Water, Rick. “Reconsidering the Beast from the Sea (Rev. 13:1).” New Testament Studies 46, no. 2 (2000): 245-261.
Walton, John H. “New Observations on the Date of Isaiah.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 28, no. 2 (1985): 129-132.
Watts, Ricki E. “Echoes from the Past: Israel’s Ancient Traditions and the Destiny of the Nations in Isaiah 40-55.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 28, no. 4 (2004): 481-508.
