Download B.4.A compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and more Lecture notes Fossil Fuels in PDF only on Docsity!
B.4.A compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic Cells: Animal Plant Plant
B.4.B investigate and explain cellular processes, including homeostasis, energy conversions (covered 9B), transport of molecules, and synthesis of new molecules (covered 6C)
Diffusion : movement of molecules
from a high to low concentration;
energy is NOT required
Simple Diffusion-Passive transport Facilitated Diffusion-Active transport
-both have DNA as their genetic material -both have a cell membrane -both have ribosomes
Eukaryotic Cells -have a nucleus -have membrane-bound organelles -much larger than prokaryotes -undergo mitosis
Prokaryotic Cells -do not have a nucleus – DNA floats freely in cell -do not have membrane-bound organelles -much smaller than eukaryotes -divide by binary fission -bacteria
Chloroplast site of photosynthesis
Osmosis : type of diffusion; movement
of water molecules from a high to low
concentration through a semi-
permeable membrane
Hypertonic (cell shrinks/shrivels) Isotonic (cell stays the same) Hypotonic (cell swells/enlarges)
Active transport : movement of
molecules from a low to high
concentration; requires energy (ATP)
Bulk transport : movement of large
quantities of molecules at once
Endocytosis: molecules ENTER the cell Exocytosis: molecules EXIT the cell
B.5.B examine specialized cells, including roots, stems, and leaves of plants; and animal cells such as blood, muscle, and epithelium
Cell Tissue Function Location
Parenchyma Parenchyma (ground) Many functions Leaf: photosynthesis; allows for gas exchange Root: storage of sugars; transport water
Throughout plant (roots, stems, and leaves)
Tracheid
Xylem (vascular)
Serve as conducting cell to transport water throughout plant
Throughout plant (roots, stems, and leaves)
Sieve tube member/element
Phloem (vascular)
Serve as conducting cell to transport sugars throughout plant
Throughout plant (roots, stems, and leaves)
Companion cell Aid in conducting sugars throughout plant; found
along side sieve tube member
Throughout plant (roots, stems, and leaves)
Root hairs
n/a
Increase surface area for absorption of water Roots
Guard cells
n/a
Regulate the opening and closing of pores in the leaf called stoma(ta)
Leaf
Pollen n/a Produce sperm Flower (in angiosperms); cone (in
gymnosperms)
Ovule n/a Produce egg Flower (in angiosperms); cone (in
gymnosperms)
Function Picture Structure
Nerve cells : Carry messages to other parts of the body
Nerve cells (or neurons) are very long so that they can carry messages to different parts of the body. They have many branches at the end so that they can connect with many other nerve cells.
Muscle cells: They are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles. Their function is to produce force and cause motion. Muscle cells contain many mitochondria for ATP (energy). .
Skeletal = striated; voluntary; found in muscles of arms and legs Smooth = not striated; involuntary; found lining the digestive tract Cardiac = striated; involuntary; found in the heart
The main function of red blood cell s is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the parts of the body where it is needed.
They are shaped to give them a large surface area so they can absorb oxygen more easily. The cytoplasm contains a protein called ‘hemoglobin’, which carries oxygen
White blood cells fight pathogens and help stop infections.
White blood cells are capable of ‘eating’ bacteria and breaking them down. A high white blood cell count indicates that your body is fighting a pathogen.
Epithelial cells comprise tissues that line organs.
Epithelial tissue is comprised of multiple layers. This is often used for protection (i.e. the skin).
Spermatozoon carry genetic information to an egg.
They have a tail which they use for swimming. They have mitochondrion to release the energy they need for swimming. The head of the sperm contains special chemicals that help it to penetrate an egg.
B.6.C explain the purpose and process of transcription and translation using models of DNA and RNA
Transcription
- The use of DNA to make RNA
- Occurs in the nucleus of the cell
- RNA base-pairs with the template strand of DNA
- Remember: *RNA has uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)
Translation
- The use of RNA to make proteins
- Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell
- Requires the use of three types of RNA
- Messenger RNA (mRNA): copy of DNA’s message to code proteins; contains codons (three base sequences)
- Transfer RNA (tRNA): carries amino acids to the ribosomes; contains anti-codons (three base sequences that pair up with mRNA)
- Ribosomial RNA (rRNA): makes up structure of ribosome Anti-codon on tRNA pairs with mRNA codon to bring proper amino acid into the ribosome. Amino acids are connected until a stop codon is reached.
B. 6 .D Recognize that gene expression is a regulated process.
Steps of transcription Transcription factors bind to the DNA. RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of DNA. RNA polymerase uses DNA as a template to make RNA. *** Note: When transcription factors are NOT bound to the DNA, RNA will not be produced. ***
Exons : genes that will be expressed ; they remain in the mRNA sequence
Introns : not needed by a cell and are removed
B.6.E identify and illustrate changes in DNA and evaluate the significance of these changes Chromosomal mutation Deletion: chromosomal segment is removed (genetic information is permanently lost) Duplication: chromosomal segment is repeated Inversion: segment within a chromosome is reversed Translocation: moves a segment from one chromosome to another Non-disjunction: chromosome fails to separate properly during meiosis
Mutation in nucleotide sequence Point mutation: single nucleotide is changed (a.k.a substitution) Frameshift mutation: nucleotides are either deleted or inserted Point Mutation Frameshift Mutations
B.6.H describe how techniques such as DNA fingerprinting, genetic modifications, and chromosomal analysis are used to study the genomes of organisms
Gel electrophoresis DNA is cut into smaller pieces using restriction enzymes An electrical current is applied DNA is separated by size. Shorter fragments move farther down the gel than longer fragments.
Suspect #2 matches the crime scene sample. Deer species #3 is most closely related to deer species #1 because they have five DNA bands in common.
Karyotype
Normal male Normal female (^) Down’s Syndome Female (extra #21 chromosome)
B.6.G recognize the significance of meiosis to sexual reproduction
Meiosis Creates four genetically unique daughter cells due to crossing over (exchange of DNA between homologous chromosomes) Reduction in chromosome number from diploid to haploid Diploid: two sets of chromosomes (one from mom, one from dad) Haploid: one set of chromosomes Results in sex cells or gametes
B.7.A analyze and evaluate how evidence of common ancestry among groups is provided by the fossil record, biogeography, and homologies, including anatomical, molecular, and developmental Fossil Record Bottom layers contain the oldest fossils Upper layers contain the youngest fossils
Biogeography = study of distribution of species in space and time Isolation of populations may lead to speciation For example, all ratites (flightless birds) shared a common ancestor on the supercontinent of Pangea. When Pangea separated, populations became isolated and gave rise to different species (i.e. ostrich, emu, kiwi).
Homologies = similarity of the structure, physiology, or development of different species based upon their descent from a common ancestor Anatomical : similar bone structure Molecular: DNA and protein sequences Developmental : embryology
B.7.D analyze and evaluate how the elements of natural selection, including inherited variation, the potential of a population to produce more offspring than can survive, and a finite supply of environmental resources, result in differential reproductive success Steps of natural selection:
- There is genetic variation in traits. For example, some beetles are green and some are brown. These differences on based on DNA.
- There is differential reproduction. Since the environment can't support unlimited population growth, not all individuals get to reproduce to their full potential. In this example, green beetles tend to get eaten by birds and survive to reproduce less often than brown beetles do.
- There is heredity. The surviving brown beetles have brown baby beetles because this trait has a genetic basis. End result: The more advantageous trait, brown coloration, which allows the beetle to have more
offspring, becomes more common in the population. If this process continues, eventually, all
individuals in the population will be brown.
B.7.E analyze and evaluate the relationship of natural selection to adaptation and to the development of diversity in and among species
Speciation – formation of new species; results when there is a limit of gene flow between populations where it previously existed Reproductive barriers include Geographic isolation (populations are physically separated) Temporal isolation (populations are breeding at different times of the day or year) Behavioral isolation (populations use different mating calls or rituals) Convergent evolution – the evolution of similar adaptations because of similar habitats For example, sharks and dolphins have similar tail and fin structure. However, they are not closely related. They look similar because they live in similar habitats.
Divergent evolution - the process of two or more related species becoming more and more dissimilar For example, the kit fox and red fox once had a common ancestor. The red fox lives in mixed farmlands and forests, while the kit fox lives on the plains and in the deserts. This geographic isolation resulted in the development of different adaptations and the divergence into two species.
Coevolution – the concurrent evolution of two species completely dependent on each other For example, if a plant is pollinated by one type of insect. If the insect population evolves, the plant population must evolve to maintain its existence. Adaptation – an inherited characteristic that allows for an organism’s increased chance of survival
B.7.F analyze and evaluate the effects of other evolutionary mechanisms, including genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, and recombination
Genetic drift – random changes in allele frequencies Gene flow – individuals can migrate into new populations and interbreed, which incorporates their genes into the new population Mutation – change in DNA creates genetic variation within a population; may lead to a favorable adaptation Recombination (gene shuffling) – creates genetic variation within a population
Mutation Recombination
Genetic Drift
Gene Flow
B.7.G analyze and evaluate scientific explanations concerning the complexity of the cell Evolution of eukaryotes
- origin of mitochondria
- engulfed aerobic bacteria, but did not digest them
- mutually beneficial relationship natural selection
- origin of chloroplasts
- engulfed photosynthetic bacteria, but did not digest them
- mutually beneficial relationship natural selection!
Dichotomous keys help to classify organisms based on their characteristics. How to use a dichotomous key: Always start at #1 on the dichotomous key, regardless of the organism chosen. Read options ‘a’ and ‘b’ for #1. Determine which description matches the organism in question. Follow the directions after the matching description. Continue until description matching the organism reveals the name of organism.
What tree is this? 1a. leaves broad.......................go to 2 1b. leaves needle-like...............go to 3 2a. margin smooth.....................persimmon 2b. margin toothed.....................elm 3a. cone woody and elongated...pine
3b. cone soft and round..............ceda
B.8.C compare characteristics of taxonomic groups, including archaea, bacteria, protists, fungi, plants, and animals
Autotroph – capable of producing its own food Heterotroph – NOT capable of producing its own food; must obtain food from another source
B.9.A compare the structures and functions of different types of biomolecules, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids
Atoms Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen C, H, O, nitrogen, sometimes sulfur C, H, O C, H, O, nitrogen, phosphorous Mono-mer Monosaccharide Amino acid No monomer Nucleotide
Function Short-term energy storage; structural support; component of cell walls
Transport molecules, act as enzymes (speed up rate of chemical reactions)
Long-term energy storage; main component of cell membrane
Store genetic information; act as instructions to make proteins
Example Sugars, glucose, sucrose, cellulose, deoxyribose, ribose
Hemoglobin Phospholipids, oils, fats DNA, RNA
Picture/Diagram
B.9.B compare the reactants and products of photosynthesis and cellular respiration in terms of energy and matter and B.4.B
B.10.A describe the interactions that occur among systems that perform the functions of regulation, nutrient absorption, reproduction, and defense from injury or illness in animals
An animal’s organ systems interact to perform many functions. Regulation The endocrine system makes certain hormones. Blood in the circulatory system carries them to the skeletal system to control the amount of calcium released from bones. Nutrient Absorption Food is broken down in the stomach mechanically by the muscular system (churns food) and chemically by water, acid, and enzymes in the digestive system; nutrients are then absorbed by blood in the circulatory system Reproduction Certain hormones produced in the endocrine system control ovulation in a female’s reproductive system Defense Mucus in the lungs traps a virus in the respiratory system. T-cells in the immune system destroy virus- infected cells. Nerves in the nervous system sense pain from a fire on the skin B.10.B describe the interactions that occur among systems that perform the functions of transport, reproduction, and response in plants
Function Example of interactions Transport The root system uptakes water. Xylem vessels transport water to the leaves in the shoot system. Phloem vessels transport sugars and nutrients throughout the plant. Reproduction The reproductive organs in a flower are the pistil (female) and the stamen (male). A seed is a mature, pollinated ovule (fertilized egg). Hormones in a plant’s root system help trigger the growth of a seed in the shoot system. Response When one side of a plant does not receive enough light, a hormone that causes growth is produced in the shoot system’s leaves. It is transported to the darker side. As the dark side grows, the plant bends toward the light. Response Phototropism : plant movement in response to light Gravitropism : plant movement in response to gravity Thigmotropism: plant movement in response to touch
B.10.C analyze the levels of organization in biological systems and relate the levels to each other and to the whole system
B.11.A describe the role of internal feedback mechanisms in the maintenance of homeostasis
In negative feedback the body responds to an extreme condition by reversing the current direction of change. Example: Maintaining stable blood glucose levels Low blood sugar… pancreas releases glucagon… liver releases glucose into blood… normal blood sugar obtained High blood sugar… pancreas releases insulin… fat cells take glucose from blood… normal blood sugar obtained Example: Maintaining stable body temperature High body temperature… blood vessels dilate and sweat glands secrete sweat… body temperature returns to normal Low body temperature… blood vessels constrict and muscles contract… body temperature returns to normal
In positive feedback the body responds to an extreme condition by promoting the current direction of change. Example: Giving birth Oxytocin is continuously secreted to stimulate uterine contractions.
