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Autonomic Nervous System - Human Anat Physiology II | BIOL 207, Study notes of Physiology

Longwood University Physiology

Prof. Donald Merkle

autonomic nervous system Material Type: Notes; Professor: Merkle; Class: Human Anat Physiology II; Subject: Biology; University: Longwood University; Term: Spring 2010;

Typology: Study notes

2009/2010

Uploaded on 12/07/2010

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Olfaction= sense of smell

- Olfactory cranial nerve

- Limbic area

- Olfactory bulb

- Afferent Neurons

Tracts

- Usually extensions of brain material

Inhaled Insulin (January 27th, 2006)

- Instead of injections pills can’t be taken because digestive system won’t break it down

Cocaine

- Constant use of cocaine damages the membrane of the nose and causes a weakening of the

nasal septum, suffer from frequent nose bleeds

Eye

- Three layers:

oFibrous tunica- dense fibrous connective tissue becomes cornea and sclera

oVascular tunica- becomes iris, ciliary bodies, and choroid layer

oNervous tunica- becomes retina

- FIBROUS TUNICA = CONJUNCTIVA

oA thin protective covering of epithelial cells covering the cornea and sclera

oConjunctivitis pink eye, inflammation of the conjunctiva

oSub conjunctival hemorrhage blood vessels break and blood gathers. Happens

often from vomiting (such as in those who drink heavily or those who are pregnant

* CORNEA MUST BE CRYSTAL CLEAR IN ORDER FOR VISION TO BE CLEAR- DAMAGED CORNEAS CAN

FORM SCAR TISSUE, PREVENTING LIGHT FROM ENTERING EYE

- VASCULAR TUNICA

oIRIS

Pigmented structure

Regulates how much light enters back of eye

Two muscle layers (smooth muscle):

Radial layer

Circular layer

oCILIARY BODIES

Have suspensory ligaments

Stretch lens to focus

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Olfaction= sense of smell

Olfactory cranial nerve
Limbic area
Olfactory bulb
Afferent Neurons Tracts
Usually extensions of brain material Inhaled Insulin (January 27th, 2006)
Instead of injections pills can’t be taken because digestive system won’t break it down Cocaine
Constant use of cocaine damages the membrane of the nose and causes a weakening of the nasal septum, suffer from frequent nose bleeds Eye
Three layers: o Fibrous tunica- dense fibrous connective tissue becomes cornea and sclera o Vascular tunica- becomes iris, ciliary bodies, and choroid layer o Nervous tunica- becomes retina
FIBROUS TUNICA = CONJUNCTIVA o A thin protective covering of epithelial cells covering the cornea and sclera o Conjunctivitis pink eye, inflammation of the conjunctiva o Sub conjunctival hemorrhage blood vessels break and blood gathers. Happens often from vomiting (such as in those who drink heavily or those who are pregnant

CORNEA MUST BE CRYSTAL CLEAR IN ORDER FOR VISION TO BE CLEAR- DAMAGED CORNEAS CAN FORM SCAR TISSUE, PREVENTING LIGHT FROM ENTERING EYE

VASCULAR TUNICA o IRIS  Pigmented structure  Regulates how much light enters back of eye  Two muscle layers (smooth muscle):  Radial layer  Circular layer o CILIARY BODIES  Have suspensory ligaments  Stretch lens to focus

 Visual accommodation  Produces aqueous humor o CHOROID LAYER  Layer under retina  Reflects light back onto retina (rods and cones on back layer)

NERVOUS TUNICA o RETINA  Layer of sensory neurons (photo receptors)  Rods- nighttime or black and white vision o Low threshold for stimulation o Rhodopsin converted to retinine (purple to yellow) o Bleaching generates action potential o Reconverted only in low light  Cones- daytime or color vision o High threshold for light o Most abundant in fovea centralis o Three types red, blue, green o FOVEA CENTRALIS  Yellow spot  Highest concentration of cones o BLIND SPOT  Where optic nerve leaves the retina  No room for rods or cones o RETINAL DETACHMENT  When retina separates from choroid layer  Can sometimes be reattached
Fluids in the eye o Aqueous humor helps to maintain the shape of the anterior chamber of the eye  Produced by ciliary bodies  Produced throughout lifetime o Vitreous humor transparent, jelly like fluid that suspends the lens  Produced during embryonic development only FLUIDS REFRACT LIGHT DIFFERENTLY THAN AIR
LENS o Transparent, flexible, curved protein structure – focuses incoming light rays onto the retina using its refractive properties o Bi- convex (type of lens in human eye)  Ability to change its shape or curvature to focus  visual accommodation o Two types of lens:  Bi convex- causes light to converge

o The lens becomes cloudy as abnormal proteins are deposited o Primary cause is exposure to UV radiation o Changes protein in lens o Corrected by lens transplants

Visual accommodation o The ability to change the shape of the lens o Help to focus on near and far things
Presbyopia o Gradual loss of visual accommodation with age
Leading causes of blindness o Glaucoma  Increased intra-ocular pressure due to an increase in aqueous humor creating pressure on lens, then pressure on vitrous humor, then pressure on retina and choroid layer which compresses and collapses blood vessels resulting in the death of rods and cones  Treatment- marijuana o Macular degeneration  Age related macular degeneration- “AMD” is an eye disease in which the macula is damaged  Dry form- more common and less serious. Protein Drusen deposits form under retina causing it to damage choroid layer and detach retina  Wet form- normal and leaky blood vessels grow under macula. Blood vessels break and leak blood, separating retina from choroid. Retinopathy. o Diabetic retinopathy  Hemorrhages inside eye
BINOCULAR VISION o Both eyes look at the same object from a slightly different angle o Gives stereoscopic vision and depth perception o Eye muscles work together- coordinated
DIPLOPIA o Double vision o Strabismus= weakness of eye muscles o Lazy eye vs. Good eye o Brain learns to use good eye as main eye  favors
EYE MUSCLES (controlled by): o Occulomotor o Abducens o Trochlear

- EYEBROW AND EYELIDS

o Both protect the eye and keep foreign objects out A chazalion or stye is a small lump in the eyelid caused by an obstruction of an oil producing meibomian gland (specialized sebaceous gland at the rim of the eyelids responsible for the supply of oil and sebum)

Nyctalopia= night blindness o Vitamin A is needed to make rhodopsin in the rods o Lack of enzyme to do conversion
Color blindness o Red/green color blindness is most common o Sex linked most common in males
Optic nerve o Optic tract is mixed o Temporal field of one eye and nasal field of other eye o Damage to optic tract = vision problems in both eyes HEARING
Ear has two functions: o Hearing o Balance
Three parts of ear o External o Middle o Inner
Cerumen = ear wax

Deafness o Inability to hear certain frequencies o May be due to bone problems o May be due to nerve problems
Decibels o Approx decibel (dB) level o 0 is faintest sound heard by human ear o 30 is a whisper o 60 normal talking o 90 lawn mower o 100 chainsaw o Anything over 85 can damage hearing
Audiometer o Tests hearing
Sign Language
Tinnitus o A ringing or buzzing in ear o Common phenomenon affects approx. 17 % of population o 83% elderly
Cochlear Implants o “artificial ear” o 2005 o Minicomputer acts as cochlea
Inner ear o Cochlea – hearing o Vestibules – static balance  Sense of static balance  Crystals of calcium carbonate- otoliths = “ear rocks”  Otoliths rest on sensory hairs (nervous tissue) in ear, when head is moved, crystals shift o Semi-circular canals – dynamic balance  Three sets – are at right angles to each other  Endolymph moves and stimulates sensory hairs  Sense of dynamic balance ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Glands
Epithelial tissue specialized for secretion

Exocrine- have ducts
Endocrine o Ductless glands o Secret hormones directly into blood o Hormones alter cellular activity o Target cells have appropriate receptors to respond to hormones
Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Thyroid
Parathyroid (dorsal aspect of thyroid)
Thymus
Adrenal
Pancreas
Ovary (female)
Testis (male)
Other organs release hormones o Stomach = gastrin o Small intestine = enterogastrone o Pancreas =  Secretin  Pancreozymen  Cholecystokinin  Enterocrinine  Villikinin NERVOUS VS. ENDOCRINE NERVOUS
Nervous tissue
Fast response
Action potential
Short lived
Nerve, muscle or gland ENDOCRINE
Endocrine glands = epithelial
Slow response
Hormones
Long lived
All cells

o Interstial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH) IN MALES

Gondatropins o Hormones that stimulate gonads o FSH o LH = ICSH (release sex hormones)
Growth Hormone o Made by anterior pituitary o Needed for normal growth and development o Congenital lack = dwarfism o Hyper-secretion before puberty = gigantism o Hyper-secretion after puberty = acromegaly o Growth hormone acts on liver o Liver produces somatomedin (insulin like growth factor) o Somatomedin acts on growth plates
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone o Needed to stimulate the thyroid gland to produce its hormones
ACTH o Stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce its hormones o Adrenal gland is actually two glands:  Outer = adrenal cortex  Inner = adrenal medulla
Prolactin o Stimulates the female to produce breast milk
FSH o Stimulates the follicles to produce gametes
LH = ICSH o Stimulates the gonads to produce sex hormones
MSH o Stimulates the melanocytes to release melanin ALL ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES ARE REGULATED BY THE HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOTHALAMUS
Produces regulating factors that control anterior pituitary
IF= inhibiting factors
RF = releasing factors
Act like hormones
Carried by pituitary portal system Portal systems
Two beds of capillaries with direct connection

1- hepatic portal system – small intestine to liver
2- pituitary portal system – hypothalamus to anterior pituitary
3- Renal portal system – kidney to .... POSTERIOR PITUITARY
Two hormones are stored and released from posterior pituitary
Actually made by hypothalamus o Oxytocin “hormone of love”  Causes contraction of uterus  Lets breast milk flow “letting down” reflex  Released during orgasm  Oxytocin increases intimacy and bonding in sexual relationships o Anti-Diuretic Hormone  Causes re-absorption of water in kidney  vasopressin  Alcohol prevents ADH release  reason for dehydration in alcoholics  “dry mouth” in a hangover
Diabetes Insipidus o Lack of ADH causes kidneys to not re-absorb water o More urine produced  polyuria THYMUS GLAND
One of three lymph organs (tonsils, spleen, thymus)
Produces hormone thymosin, needed to stimulate leukocytes to become functional
Gland atrophies after puberty
Lymphocytes that stay in thymus become t- lymphocytes TONSILS
Three sets o Palatine o Pharyngeal = adenoids o Lingual THYROID GLAND
Two major hormones o Calcitonin- lowers blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoblast activity o Thyroxin- needed for normal growth and development especially nervous tissue  Needed for structure

o islets of Langerhans, o a-cells  A- cells produce glucagon which raises blood sugar (70-110 normal levels) o b-cells  B- cells make insulin which lowers blood glucose by making cells permeable to glucose

Exocrine o Acini cells
Ways to raise glucose o Glycogenolysis o Glyconeogenesis = creates new glucose from muscle and fat
Diabetes mellitus o Type 1 juvenile = insulin dependence o “Auto immune Disease” o B cells destroyed
Consequences of no insulin o Hyperglycemia- more blood sugar o Glycosuria – dumping of sugar into kidneys o Polyuria- a lot of urine o Thirst occurs from losing so much fluid o Atherosclerosis o Blood clots o Ketosis o Beta oxygenation o Nerve and muscle dysfunction
Problem?? o Bovine and porcine insulin no longer available o Now produced by bacteria o New “insulin inhalers” have increased likelihood of lung cancer
Diabetes insipidus o Type two late onset = insulin independent o Receptor fatigue o This is most common type
Problems o Hyperglycemia- high blood sugar o Glycosuria- sugar in urine o Polyuria- pee all the time

o Atherosclerosis o Increase probability for strokes, amputations, kidney failure ADRENAL GLAND

Two glands
Adrenal cortex- epithelial tissue
Adrenal medulla- nervous tissue ADRENAL CORTEX
Makes three types of hormones o Gluco-corticoids  Names like: cortisol, hydrocortisone, corticosterone  Help body fight stress by increasing glucose  Inhibit inflammatory response  Collagen fibers used for “walling off” process  Prevents spread of damaging agents  Dispose of cell debris o Signs of inflammation:  Redness  Swelling  Pain  All are due to release of histamines from damaged cells  Cortisol  Helps maintain blood pressure and cardiovascular function  Helps flow the immune system’s inflammatory response  Helps balance the effects of insulin in breaking down sugar for energy  Helps to regulate the metabolism to break down carbohydrates and proteins  Cushing’s syndrome  Excessive levels of gluco-corticoids  “moon” face  Buffalo hump  Striae (abdominal stretch marks)  Hirstuism (excess body hair)  Where is the problem? – hypothalamus  Addison’s Disease  Hyposecreation of cortisol

o Produced by all tissues in the body o Prostaglandins contain 20 carbon atoms

Actions o Cause constriction or dilation in vascular smooth muscle o Cause aggregation or disaggregation on platelets o Cause pain in spinal neurons o Regulate inflammatory response o Induce inflammation, pains, and fever – aspirin blocks and enzyme called...
GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME (GAS) o How the body responds to stress o Three parts  Alarm reactions- happen fast but short lived  Happens fast = nervous control  Sympathetic nervous system= fight or flight  Post ganglionic neurons release NOR responses  Adrenal medulla also releases NOR  Resistance reactions or adaptations- take longer to occur but lasts longer  Causes release of TSH, ACTH, HGH  All increase glucose levels to cells needed to meet the stress  Exhaustion

Autonomic Nervous System - Human Anat Physiology II | BIOL 207, Study notes of Physiology

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- EYEBROW AND EYELIDS