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Chapter 1
Passage 1 A divide between aesthetic and technical considerations has played a crucial role in mapmaking and cartographic scholarship. Since nineteenth century cartographers, for instance, understood themselves as technicians who did not care about visual effects, while others saw themselves as landscape painters. That dichotomy structured the discipline of the history of cartography. Until the 1980s, in what Blakemore and Harley called “the Old is Beautiful Paradigm,” scholars largely focused on maps made before 1800, marveling at their beauty and sometimes regretting the decline of the pre-technical age. Early mapmaking was considered art while modern cartography was located within the realm of engineering utility. Alpers, however, has argued that this boundary would have puzzled mapmakers in the seventeenth century, because they considered themselves to be visual engineers.
- According to the passage, Alpers would say that the assumptions underlying the “paradigm” were A. inconsistent with the way some mapmakers prior to 1800 understand their own work B. dependent on a seventeenth-century conception of mapmaking visual engineering C. unconcerned with the difference between the aesthetic and technical questions of mapmaking D. insensitive to divisions among cartographers working in the period after 1800 E. supported by the demonstrable technical superiority of mapmaking made after 1800
- It can be inferred from the passage that, beginning in the 1980s, historians of cartography A. placed greater emphasis on the beauty of maps made after 1800 B. expanded their range of study to include more material created after 1800 C. grew more sensitive to the way mapmakers prior to 1800 conceived of their work D. came to see the visual details of maps as aesthetic objects rather than practical cartographic aids E. reduced the attention they paid to the technical aspects of mapmaking Passage 2 Most mammals reach sexual maturity when their growth rates are in decline, whereas humans 4 直到1980年代 之前，学者 主要关注 年之前的地 图；换言 之，1980年之 后，学者开 始更多地关 注1800年之后 的地图了
experience a growth spurt during adolescence. Whether apes experience an adolescent growth spurt is still undecided. In the 1950s, data on captive chimpanzees collected by James Gavan appeared devoid of evidence of an adolescent growth spurt in these apes. In a recent reanalysis of Gavan’s data, however, zoologist Elizabeth Watts has found that as chimpanzees reach sexual maturity, the growth rate of their limbs accelerates. Most biologists, however, are skeptical that this is a human-like adolescent growth spurt. While the human adolescent growth spurt is physically obvious and affects virtually the entire body, the chimpanzee’s increased growth rate is detectable only through sophisticated mathematical analysis. Moreover, according to scientist Holly Smith, the growth rate increase in chimpanzees begins when 86% of full skeletal growth has been attained, whereas human adolescence generally commences when 77 percent of full skeletal growth has occurred.
- Which of the following best describes the main idea of the passage? A. Researchers have long disagreed about whether data collected in the 1950s indicate that chimpanzees and other apes experience an adolescent growth spurt. B. Research data collected on chimpanzees living in captivity are inconclusive with respect to chimpanzees living in the wild. C. The notion that apes do not experience an adolescent growth spurt has been confirmed by research conducted since. D. Although the idea that apes experience an adolescent growth has received some support, most biologists remain unconvinced. E. Although researchers a e that chimpanzees do not experience an adolescent growth spurt, they are divided in their opinions of whether this is true of other apes.
- The passage mentions which of the following as one of the reasons why most biologists remain skeptical that chimpanzees experience a humanlike adolescent growth spurt? A. Chimpanzees do not experience a demonstrable increase in growth rate until they are fully sexually mature. B. The increase in growth rate that chimpanzees undergo at sexual maturity is less apparent than that of humans. C. The increase in growth rate once regarded as a humanlike adolescent growth spurt in chimpanzees is too sporadic to be regarded as significant. D. Not all chimpanzees undergo a calculable growth spurt. E. Watt’s approach to analyzing data is considered to be highly unorthodox. 5
C. reject the notion that scientific knowledge is socially constructed D. turn to examining older anthropological texts for unacknowledged biases E. integrate humanistic interpretations with empirical methodologies Passage 4 Writing about nineteenth-century women’s travel writing, Lila Harper notes that the four women she discussed used their own names, in contrast with the nineteenth-century female novelists who either published anonymously or used male pseudonyms. The novelists doubtless realized that they were breaking boundaries, whereas three of the four daring, solitary travelers espoused traditional values, eschewing radicalism and women’s movements. Whereas the female novelists criticized their society, the female travelers seemed content to leave society as it was while accomplishing their own liberation. In other words, they lived a contradiction. For the subjects of Harper’s study, solitude in both the private and public spheres prevailed—a solitude that conferred authority, hitherto a male prerogative, but that also precluded any collective action or female solidarity.
- Which of the following best characterizes the “contradiction” that the author refers to? A. The subjects of Harper’s study enjoyed solitude, and yet as travelers they were often among people. B. Nineteenth-century travel writers used their own names, but nineteenth-century novelists used pseudonyms. C. Women’s movements in the nineteenth-century were not very radical in comparison with those of the twentieth-century. D. Nineteenth-century female novelists thought they were breaking boundaries, but it was the nineteenth-century women who traveled alone who were really doing so. E. While traveling alone in the nineteenth-century was considered a radical act for a woman, the nineteenth-century solitary female travelers generally held conventional views. Consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
- According to the passage, solitude had which of the following effects for the nineteenth century female travelers? A. It conferred an authority typically enjoyed only by men. B. It prevented formation of alliances with other women. 7
C. It relieved peer pressure to conform to traditional values. Passage 5 Although vastly popular during its time, much nineteenth-century women’s fiction in the United States went unread by the twentieth-century educated elite, who were taught to ignore it as didactic. However, American literature has a tradition of didacticism going back to its Puritan roots, shifting over time from sermons and poetic transcripts into novels, which proved to be perfect vehicles for conveying social values. In the nineteenth century, critics reviled Poe for neglecting to conclude his stories with pithy moral tags, while Longfellow was canonized for his didactic verse. Although rhetorical changes favoring the anti-didactic can be detected as nineteenth-century American transformed itself into a secular society, it was twentieth-century criticism, which placed aesthetic value above everything else, that had no place in its doctrine for the didacticism of others.
- Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence? A. It explains why the fiction mentioned in the first sentence was not popular in the twentieth century. B. It assists in drawing a contrast between nineteenth-century and twentieth-century critics. C. It provides an example of how twentieth – century readers were taught to ignore certain literature. D. It questions the usefulness of a particular distinction between Poe and Longfellow made by critics. E. It explains why Poe’s stories were more popular than Longfellow’s verse during the nineteenth century.
- In the context in which it appears, “conveying” most nearly means A. carrying B. transferring C. granting D. imparting E. projecting Passage 6 During the Pleistocene epoch, several species of elephants isolated on islands underwent rapid 8
nonsensical. This overturning of convention, this assailing of standard graphic and typographic formats, was part of a search for intellectual freedom. The impulse toward liberation enabled avant-guardists to see with fresh eyes untried possibilities for arranging and relating words and images on paper.
- According to the passage, the primary purpose of conventional graphic design is to A. render unpopular ideas palatable to a wider audience B. capture readers’ attention with bold fonts C. communicate nonsensical notions to a wide public D. communicate ideas as efficiently and unambiguously as possible E. introduce previously unknown ideas to the general public For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
- According to the passage, avant-guard artists of the early twentieth-century created ambiguous or nonsensical graphics as part of an attempt to A. expand the potential for expression through visual art B. compete with advertisements for reader’s attention C. encourage the expansion of small magazines Passage 8 According to Hill and Spicer, the term “nation-state” is a misnomer, since the ideal model of a monolingual, culturally homogeneous state has never existed, not even among Europeans, who invented the nation-state concept and introduced it to the rest of the world. Modern European states, they argue, emerged after the Renaissance through the rise of nations (i.e., specific ethnic groups) to positions of political and economic dominance over a number of other ethnic groups within the bounded political territories. The term “nation-state”, Hill and Spicer argue, obscures the internal cultural and linguistic diversity of states that could more accurately be called “conquest states.” The resurgence of multiple ethnic groups within a single state, Hill says, is not “potentially threating to the sovereign jurisdiction of the state,” as Urban and Sherzer suggest; rather, the assertion of cultural differences threatens to reveal ethnocentric beliefs and practices upon which conquest states were historically founded and thus to open up the possibility for a “nations-state” in which conquered ethnic groups enjoy equal rights with the conquering ethnic group but do not face the threat of persecution or 10
cultural assimilation into the dominant ethnic group.
- The primary purpose of the passage is to A. discuss issues relating to a form of political organization by raising doubts about the terminology used to refer to it B. trace changes in a form of political organization by examining the evolution of the terminology used to refer to C. justify the continued use of an established term for an evolving form of political organization D. question the accuracy of a new term for a form of political organization E. compare two terms for a form of political organization
- The author of the passage quotes Urban and Sherzer most probably in order to A. introduce a discussion of the legal ramifications of expanding the nation-state concept B. summarize a claim about one possible effect of asserting cultural differences within a state C. shift the focus of discussion from internal threats that states face to external threats that they face D. point out similarities between the threats to states seen by Urban and Sherzer and those seen by Hill E. describe one way an ethnocentric practice has affected attempts to assert cultural differences within a state
- According to the passage, Hill and Spicer define nations as which of the following? A. coalitions of distinct ethnic groups with similar concerns B. Distinct ethnic groups C. Culturally homogeneous states D. Linguistically diverse states E. Territorially bounded states
Passage 9
From 1910 to 1913, women suffragists in the United States organized annual parades—activity traditionally conducted by men to proclaim solidarity in some cause—not only as a public expression of suffragist solidarity but also a conscious transgression of the rules of social order: women’s very presence in the streets challenged traditional notions of femininity and restrictions on women’s conduct. While recognizing the parade’s rhetorical force as a vehicle for social change, scholars have recently 11
A. contrast Mackenzie’s reasons for writing novels with those of Austen B. introduce evidence regarding the influence of particular writers on Austen C. corroborate a claim that a convention of masculine behavior changed during Austen’s lifetime D. suggest that Austen’s novels were more reflective of their historical context than Mackenzie’s had been E. challenge a particular misconception about the modes of behavior common among gentlemen in the later eighteenth century
- The passage suggests which of the following about scholarship on Jane Austen? A. Much recent scholarship has begun to place greater emphasis on gender conventions governing men’s behavior during Austen’s lifetime. B. Some scholarship has debated whether Austen’s novels depict emotional restraint as an admiral quality. C. Certain scholars argue that Austen’s novels do not accurately reflect cultural changes during Austen’s lifetime that changed the way gentlemen dressed and behaved. D. After 1980, scholarship on Austen shifted toward a greater emphasis on the historical context in which she wrote. E. With few exceptions, recent scholarship depicts Austen as a writer who had little interest in the tumultuous events of her time. Passage 11 Whereas Carlos Bulosan aimed through fiction and personal testimony to advance both Filipino civil rights in the United States and the social transformation of the Philippines, Yen Le Espiritu has set herself the task of recovering life histories of Filipino Americans. Her work brings Filipino Americans of the generation following the 1934-1965 immigration hiatus graphically to life. A special strength is the representation of Filipino American women, who were scarce among immigrants before the 1934 American curb on Filipino immigration but composed more than half of the immigrants to America since liberalization in 1965. Espiritu’s subjects document their changing sense of Filipino identity in the United States, much as Bulosan did as a member of the first substantial wave of immigrants.
- According to the passage, both Bulosan and Espiritu do which of the following in their work? A. Consider generational differences in Filipino immigrants’ responses to life in the United States 13
B. Attempt to make allowance for the demographic variations among Filipino immigrants to the United States C. Employ fiction in addition to documenting actual life histories of Filipino immigrants to the United States D. Represent how life in the United States has affected immigrants’ sense of Filipino identity E. Examine the effects on Filipinos in the United States of the 1934 American curb on Filipino immigration
- In the context in which it appears, “graphically” most nearly means A. in writing B. by means of drawing C. impressionistically D. diagrammatically E. vividly Passage 12 1800 Thomas Dilworth’s New Guide to the English Dialogue was being widely used to teach reading in the United States. Dilworth's primer, unlike earlier ones, stressed the importance of children’s understanding what they read. While it is in fact unlikely that children would have recognized all the vocabulary Dilworth used, that was at least his stated goal. Dilworth recognized that primers should enable children to decode words from print with the form of language they already knew: speech. In contrast, many earlier authors assumed that, just as introductory Latin texts taught children an unknown language, introductory English texts should teach English as if it, too, were an unknown language—such their esoteric choice of vocabulary, it in effect became unknown.
- According to the passage, the “earlier authors” adopted a model for English instruction that A. mirrored the practice used in Latin instruction B. was originally formulated by Dilworth C. was less esoteric than that adopted by Dilworth D. stressed familiarity with the peculiarities of English spelling E. emphasized the importance of fluent and articulate speech
- The author of the passage would probably a e with which of the following criticisms of English 14
- According to the passage, some southern munitions plants built in the South during the Second World War were A. later reopened and used once more as munitions plants B. used for nonmanufacturing purposes after the war C. originally envisioned as continuing to manufacture munitions at high capacity even after the war had ended
- In the passage, the mention of “Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Tennessee” serves primarily to A. suggest that some states were better than others at anticipating postwar economic needs B. identify evidence used to support a view held by scholars mentioned at the beginning of the passage C. suggest that federal investment in some kinds of manufacturing was excessive D. identify the states that received the largest allocations of federal funds E. provide information to support a point about the nature of government investment made earlier in the paragraph Passage 14 Although the passenger pigeons, now extinct, were abundant in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century America, archaeological studies at twelfth-century Cahokian sites in the present day United States examined household food trash and found that traces of passenger pigeon were quite rare. Given that the sites were close to a huge passenger pigeon roost documented by John James Audubon in the nineteenth century and that Cahokians consumed almost every other animal protein source available, Q2the archaeologists conducting the studies concluded the passenger pigeon population had once been very limited before increasing dramatically in post-Columbian America. Other archaeologists have criticized those conclusions on the grounds that passenger pigeon bones would not be likely to be preserved. But all the archaeological projects found plenty of bird bones- and even Q1tiny bones from fish.
- The author of the passage mentions “tiny bones from fish” primarily in order to A. explain why traces of passenger pigeon are rare at Cahokian sites B. support a claim about the wide variety of animal proteins in the Cahokian diet C. provide evidence that confirms a theory about the extinction of the passenger pigeon 16
D. cast doubt on the conclusion reached by the archaeologists who conducted the studies discussed in the passage E. counter an objection to an interpretation of the data obtained from Cahokian sites
- Which of the following, if true, would most call into question the reasoning of “the archaeologists conducting the studies”? A. Audubon was unable to correctly identify twelfth-century Cahokian sites B. Audubon made his observations before passenger pigeon populations began to decline. C. Passenger pigeons would have been attracted to household food trash D. Archaeologist have found passenger pigeon remains among food waste at eighteenth-century human settlements E. Passenger pigeons tended not to roost at the same sites for very many generations Passage 15 Feminist scholars have tended to regard women in the nineteenth-century United States who elected to remain single as champions of women’s autonomy and as critics of marriage as an oppressive institution. Indeed, many nineteenth-century American women who participated in reform movements or who distinguished themselves as writers and professionals were single. Yet this view of single women tends to distort the meaning of their choices. The nineteenth century saw the elevation of marriage for love as a spiritual ideal. Consequently, it became socially acceptable for women not to marry if such an ideal marriage could not be realized with an available suitor. Thus, many women’s choice to remain single reflected not a negative view of marriage but a highly idealistic one.
- The author of the passage implies that many nineteenth-century American women chose to remain single because they A. believed that marriage required them to give up much of their autonomy B. had attitudes toward marriage that were influenced by contemporary reform movements C. wanted to take advantage of increasing opportunities to distinguish themselves as professionals D. doubted that their own marriage would live up to their notion of what a marriage ought to be E. had a negative view of marriage fostered by a change in social attitudes during the nineteenth century 17
A. A position is noted, an alternative to that position is introduced, and then several points in support of the alternative are discussed. B. A theory is discussed, an inconsistency within that theory is illustrated, and then a recommendation is made for further inquiry. C. Certain research results are described, the significance of those results is explained, and then a novel interpretation of those results is summarized. D. A question is posed, a possible answer to that question is suggested, and then evidence is provided to corroborate that answer. E. A debate is outlined, contrasting viewpoints within the debate are discussed, and then one viewpoint is demonstrated to be correct.
- According to the passage, Farmer concedes that endothermy provides an explanation for which of the following features shared by birds and mammals? A. The ability to forage B. The ability to sustain exercise C. The instinct to care for offspring D. Flexibility in habitat usage E. Body insulation Passage 17 Prominent among theories of the function of sleep is Meddis’ immobilization hypothesis, which holds that sleep, rather than serving a restorative function, plays a protective role during times that animals cannot be usefully engaged in other activities. Meddis reasoned that animals not immediately threatened by predators would be safer if they passed the time sleeping. However, that hypothesis cannot easily explain why one often observes a rebound in sleep time or intensity following a period of sleep deprivation. Neither does the hypothesis explain the existence of various states of sleep, which themselves may be associated with different functions. Consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
- According to the passage, the immobilization hypothesis fails to account for which of the following facts? 19
A. That sleep does not appear to be a uniform and unchanging state B. That under certain conditions animals appear to need more sleep than usual C. That animals rarely sleep when a predator has been detected nearby
- In the context of the passage as a whole, the highlighted portion serves primarily to A. present the thinking that led scientists to qualify a widely accepted view B. describe the basis on which a hypothesis was advanced C. illustrate the kind of reasoning that is applied in a branch of science D. explain how a hypothesis can be tested empirically E. relate the analysis that refined a tentative explanation Passage 18 In 1919 Britain experienced its largest ever reduction in industrial working hours, to 48 per week. In Dowie’s view the 48-hour week played a central role in Britain’s poor economic performance during the 1920s. Dowie argued that the reduction, together with rapid wage growth, drove up prices. However, Gresly and Oxley found that the First World War (1914-1918) constituted a more powerful negative macroeconomic shock to Britain’s competitiveness. And Scott argues that Dowie’s thesis ignores considerable evidence that hourly productivity improves when hours are reduced from a high base level. Crucially, Dowie’s thesis does not acknowledge that hours were reduced to around 48 hours a week for industrial workers in most industrialized nations at this time so far—undermining any potential impact of reduced hours on industrial productivity relative to other nations.
- Which of the following, if true, provides the strongest support for Scott’s argument? A. Companies have generally found that part-time employees are less productive than full-time ones. B. When the total number of hours worked at a company increases owing to the addition of more employees, the usual result is improved productivity at the company. C. When the total hours worked by all employees per week in two companies are equivalent, hourly productivity tends to be equivalent as well. D. Companies whose employees usually work a high number of hours tend to have greater total costs than do similar companies whose employees work fewer hours. E. Companies have found that total output per employee is not necessarily changed by reductions in the number of hours worked per employee. 20 cost是成 本的意 思；而这 里和成本 没有什么 关系 总量不变，时间少，效率高
