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APHY 102 MIDTERM EXAM LATEST 2024/
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Where are the adrenal glands located?
on top of each kidney
Where is the pancreas located?
posterior to the stomach
What are the two steroid hormones?
Sex hormones and adrenal cortex hormones; estrogen and testosterone
Describe steroid hormones
-diffuse through cell membranes into cytoplasm or nucleus
-combine with a receptor molecule binding to DNA
-promote transcription of mRNA
-mRNA enters cytoplasm directing protein synthesis
Describe non-steroid hormones.
Amines, proteins, peptides, and glycoproteins. The endocrine gland secretes nonsteroid hormones, which body fluid carries hormone to its target cell. Hormone combines with receptor site on membrane of its target cell, activating G protein. Cellular changes produce the hormone's effects.
How is the anterior pituitary gland different than the posterior pituitary gland?
The anterior pituitary becomes an endocrine gland producing and secreting hormones for the body and connects to the posterior pituitary when fully formed. Meanwhile, the posterior pituitary remains connected to the hypothalamus, functioning as a repository for hormones produced by the hypothalamus and receiving messages from it that regulate when hormones are to be released to and through the anterior pituitary
What regulates pituitary gland secretion?
Hypothalamus
Describe tropic hormones
stimulate other endocrine glands to release hormones
What is a hormone and how does it act?
Where is the pineal gland located?
center of brain
Where are the reproductive organs located?
abdomen; pelvic
Where is the pituitary gland located?
sella turcica of the sphenoid bone; base of the brain
anterior pituitary hormones
ACTH - controls manufacture and secretion of certain hormones from the outer layer of the adrenal gland.
FSH - controls growth and development of follicles that house egg cells in ovaries and stimulate production of sperm cells in the testes.
GH - stimulates cells to enlarge and more rapidly divide
LH - promotes secretion of sex hormones and allows release of egg cells from ovaries
PRL - promotes milk production
TSH - controls secretion of certain hormones from the thyroid
posterior pituitary hormones
ADH - reduces volume of water that kidneys secrete
Oxytocin - smooth muscle contraction and allows contraction of the uterus during childbirth and may stimulate the movement of certain fluids in the male reproductive tract during sexual activity
Thyroid hormones
Calcitonin - controls blood calcium and phosphate ion concentration
Thyroxine(T4) - more prevalent in circulation
Triiodothyronine(T3) - more potent than T
Parathyroid hormones
PTH - increases blood calcium ion concentration and decreases blood phosphate ion concentration through actions in the bones, kidneys, and intestines
adrenal medulla hormones
How are glucagon and insulin alike?
Both work to keep blood glucose concentration constant
How are glucagon and insulin different?
Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down glycogen into glucose and insulin promotes the formation of glycogen from glucose
How is diabetes insipitus different from diabetes mellitus?
Diabetes insipitus - a person is insatiably thirsty and has large amounts of urine output
Diabetes mellitus - two types (type 1 and type 2). Type 1 occurs when body makes no insulin. Type 2 occurs when the body reaches insulin resistance
How are pheromones different than hormones?
Pheromones are a type of hormone that are released in small quantities and play a big role in physical attraction between people.
How does aging affect the endocrine system?
As people get older, their endocrine glands decrease in size, muscular strength decreases as GH levels decrease, ADH levels increase due to slower breakdown in liver & kidneys. Calcitonin levels decrease, and insulin resistance may develop.
Describe normal blood: number of each cell type, pH.
Blood is about 8% of body weight. Adult blood volume is about 5 L.
RBC count is usually 4,600,000-6,200,000 in males, 4,200,000-5,400,000 in females.
WBC are usually 5,000-10,000 per cubic mm of blood.
Platelets are usually 130,000-360,000 per cubic mm of blood.
Normal blood pH is around 7.4.
Describe the different formed elements and their origins
RBCs originate in red bone marrow from hemocytoblasts (stem cells) which then differentiate in a process called hematopoiesis.
WBCs are called leukocytes and are split into granulocytes and agranulocytes.
Platelets are cell fragments of megakaryocytes; they lack a nucleus and are half the size of a RBC.
Neutrophils
Most abundant WBC; 54-62%. Phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few days.
Eosinophils
Deep red granules in acid stain, bi-lobed nucleus, 1-3% of WBC
Basophils
release histamine and heparin, <1% of WBC
Monocytes
Largest of all blood cells, kidney or oval shaped nuclei, become macrophages, 3- 9% of WBC
Lymphocytes
Slightly larger than RBC, 25-33% WBC
Compare serum versus plasma
Plasma is the liquid part of blood, in which blood cells, nutrients and hormones float.
Serum is the fluid part of blood, without the clotting factors or blood cells.
Describe the steps in clot formation
Hemostasis - the stoppage of bleeding.
- Blood vessel spasm - smooth muscle in blood vessel contracts
- Platelet plug formation:
a. break in vessel wall
b. blood escapes through break
c. platelets adhere to each other, to end of broken vessel, and to exposed collagen
d. platelet plug helps control blood loss
- Blood coagulation - clot forms (occurs extrinsically or intrinsically).
What happens if clots form within blood vessels?
A thrombus is made. If it breaks loose of the vessel wall and begins circulating through the body, it is then called an embolus, which can travel into tighter vessels and get trapped, causing death.
Type O
Contains no antigens on cell surface and has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in plasma (universal donor)
Type A can give to
Either Type A or Type AB
Type A can receive from
Either Type A or Type O
Type B can give to
Either Type B or Type AB
Type B can receive from
Either Type B or Type O
Type AB can give to
only AB
Type AB can receive from
A, B, AB, O
Type O can give to
A, B, AB, O
Type O can receive from
only O
How does the Rh factor affect a developing fetus and its mother?
Rh positive - presence of antigen D or other Rh antigens on the RBC membranes.
Rh negative - lack of these antigens
If a mother is Rh negative and her baby is Rh positive, her antibodies form to fight Rh-positive blood cells. If a mother is Rh positive and her baby is Rh positive, her antibodies attack the baby's RBC. Complications can lead the baby to develop erythroblastosis fetalis or hemolytic disease.
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Pulmonary semilunar valve
Lungs
Blood is oxygenated and returned to heart
Pulmonary veins
Left atrium
Mitral(bicuspid) valve
Left ventricle
Aortic semilunar valve
Body cells
Describe the pathway of the cardiac conduction system
SA node - AV node - Bundle of His - Left and right bundle branches - purkinje fibers
Describe an EKG
A recordable tracing of the electrical activity of the heart that the production and conduction of action potentials in the heart produces.
What is occurring within the heart during each part of the EKG?
At the P wave of the EKG, the atria are depolarizing.
At the QRS complex, the ventricles are depolarizing and the atria are repolarizing.
At the T wave, the ventricles are repolarizing and there is a brief refractory period between the T wave and the following P wave, which allows the heart a small rest.
Describe what is happening in the heart during atrial systole/ventricular diastole and atrial diastole/ventricular systole
Atrial systole/ventricular diastole - atria are contracting and ventricles are relaxed
Atrial diastole/ventricular systole - atria are relaxed and ventricles are contracting
How are the heart sounds made?
The first heart sound "lubb" occurs during ventricular systole as a result of the A-V valves closing.
The second heart sound "dupp" occurs during ventricular diastole as a result of the pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves closing.
What terms are used to describe abnormal heart rhythms?
Arrhythmia, atrial fibrillation, bradycardia, tachycardia, defibrillation, cardiac arrest, palpitations, Supraventricular tachycardia (SVT), Ventricular tachycardia, and ventricular fibrillation.
Stroke volume multiplied by the heart rate, expressed in bpm. (For example, if the stroke volume is 70 mL, and the heart rate is 72 bpm, the cardiac output is 5, mL per minute.
Where can pulse be found in the body?
The temple (temporal a.), neck (carotid a.), chin (facial a.), inner elbow (brachial a.), wrist (radial a.), groin (femoral a.), back of the knee (popliteal a.), front of the foot (dorsalis pedis a.), back of the ankle (posterior tibial a.)
At any given moment, where can blood be found in the body?
Veins
major arteries of the body
temporal, carotid, brachial, ulnar, radial, femoral, popliteal, dorsalis pedis, posterior tibial
major veins of the body
Superior and inferior vena cava, right and left external and internal jugular and subclavian v, right and left brachiocephalic v, hepatic v, splenic v, right and left common iliac v, external and internal iliac v, femoral v, great saphenous v, small saphenous v
What is arteriosclerosis?
the thickening and hardening of the walls of the arteries
How does aging affect the cardiovascular system?
Cholesterol deposition happens in the blood vessels, the heart enlarges, cardiac muscle cells die, there is an increase in fibrous connective tissue, adipose tissue and blood pressure and a decrease in resting heart rate.
What is the function of lymph?
To absorb dietary fats, deliver fats and excess fluids to the bloodstream, collect excess interstitial fluids, and deliver foreign particles to the lymph nodes.
Describe a lymphatic vessel
Fine, thin-walled, transparent valved channels distributed through most tissues. They have 3 walls: intima, media, and adventitia.
Describe the pathway of lymph
Lymphatic capillaries
