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APHY 101 Midterm Exam (Chapter 1 to 6 )
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Explain the difference between the study of Anatomy and the study of Physiology Anatomy is the study of structure of body parts/Physiology is the study of function of body parts Name and define the levels of organization of life Organelles, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems Define Metabolisim The sum of all physical and chemical events that obtain, release, and utilize energy Define Homeostasis. How does a homeostatic mechanism maintain homeostasis? The body's maintenance of a stable internal environment. Depend on normal concentrations of water, nutrients, and oxygen, and normal body temperature and pressure What is meant by negative feedback? How does negative feedback affect homeostatic mechanisms? Works to correct a deviation from a set point (Tries to get back to the set point/normal) Describe the structure of a serous membrane Smooth membrane consisting of 2 layers of epithelial cells which secrete serous fluid
What are signs of aging at the cellular level? Impaired cell division and the ability to break down and recycle worn cell parts What is meant by anatomical position? Universal body position: Standing erect, facing forward, upper limbs at the sides, palms facing forward and thumbs out. Explain why chemistry is an important part of the study of Physiology Body functions depend on cellular functions that, in turn, result from chemical changes Atom The smallest unit of matter that defines the chemical elements Element Fundamental substances in which all matter is composed of Molecule 2 or more atoms may combine to form a molecule Compound A substance made from two or more elements chemically combined
Base A compound that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water Neutral compound Occurs when ions of opposite charges attract one another to form electrically neutral compounds. How are acid and bases represented on the pH scale? Any pH number greater than 7 is considered a base and any pH number less than 7 is considered an acid. 0 is the strongest acid and 14 is the strongest base. How do hydrogen ion concentrations change as the numbers change? As the hydrogen concentration increases, the pH decreases What is Acidosis? Alkalosis? Acidosis = pH less than 7. Alkalosis =pH rise in the blood What distinguishes an organic compound from an inorganic compound? Organic compounds result from the activity of living beings, whereas inorganic compounds are either the result of natural processes unrelated to any life form or the result of human experimentation in the laboratory Give examples and characteristics of the 4 types of Organic Molecules
- Carbohydrate: Immediate source of energy for organisms. Ex: Monosaccaharides, simple sugars.
- Lipids: Stored energy for later use in organisms, insulation, and protection of delicate organs. Ex: Fats, oils, triglycerides.
- Protein: Organic catalysts, digestive enzymes, structural protein in hair, structural protein in skin. Ex: Enzymes, collagen, keratin.
- Nucleic Acids: Carries Genetic Info and synthesizes proteins. Ex: DNA, RNA What is the difference between a saturated and an unsaturated fat? Saturated fats contain only saturated fatty acids, whereas unsaturated fats contain at least 1 unsaturated fatty acid How are the levels (primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary) of structure of a protein created? Primary is the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide chain. Secondary is formation of an alpha helix or a beta-pleated sheet. Tertiary is the folding of the secondary structure. Quaternary forms when several polypeptide chains connect to form a very large protein What are three major parts of a cell? Nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell membrane What are organelles? Small structures found floating in the cytoplasm along with the nucleus that help with cellular processes
Describe filtration The process of forcing molecules through a membrane Active transport The movement of materials against a concentration difference that requires energy Endocytosis The process of a cell engulfing a substance by forming a vesicle around the substance Pinocytosis Endocytosis of tiny droplets of liquids Phagocytosis Endocytosis of solids What is receptor-mediated endocytosis? Moves very specific kinds of particles into the cell; a substance must bind to a receptor before it can enter the cell What is exocytosis? The reverse of endocytosis
What is transcytosis? Moves substances from one end of a cell to the other end of the cell Hypertonic More water outside of cell than in cell/Cells shrink Hypotonic More water in cell than on the outside/Cells swell Isotonic Having the same concentration inside and outside of cell How does the number of solute particles affect osmotic pressure? What are the phases and the order of the Cell Cycle? Interphase: Prophase: Metaphase: Anaphase: Telophase: Cytokinesis: Cell differentiation
Catabolism A group of metabolic processes that break down larger molecules into smaller ones Explain the process/purpose of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions Joins many simple sugar molecules to form larger molecules of glycogen/Without water Can decompose carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins/A water molecule is used to split substances/Reverse of dehydration synthesis What type of organic molecule are enzyme? Most are globular proteins that promote specific chemical reactions in cells by lowering the activation energy required to start these chemical reactions What general function do enzymes have in the body? Enzymes function as catalysts, which means that they speed up the rate at which metabolic processes and reactions occur in living organisms What is the role of enzymes in metabolism? Describe on a molecular level how enzymes perform their function What are cofactors?
Helps an active site obtain its appropriate shape or helps bind the enzymes to its substrate Coenzymes Organic molecules that act as cofactors How are vitamins important to enzymes? What is the structure and function of ATP An adenine, a ribose, and 3 phosphates in a chain What is the purpose of protein synthesis? Protein synthesis is the making of proteins for the cell to use and amino acids are put together in a specific order to make each protein What are the major stages of protein synthesis reaction? What is the purpose of cellular repiration? Process that releases energy from molecules such as glucose and makes it available for cellular use What are the major stages of cellular respiration pathway? What major event occur in each stage? Glycolysis, citric acid cycle (Kreb's), and Electron Transport Chain
Mutation A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene. Mutations in a gene's DNA sequence can alter the amino acid sequence of the protein encoded by the gene Mutagen An agent that causes mutations Histology Study of tissues Tissue A group of cells that act together to perform a specific function Describe the 3 types of intercellular junctions Tight junctions: They are impermeable junctions that bind cells together into leak proof sheets that prevent substances from passing through the space between cells Desmosomes: Located in cells of the skin and function to form a reinforced structural unit Gap Junctions: Located in cells of the heart muscle and muscle cells of digestive tract and function to link the cytoplasm of adjacent cells and allow ions, nutrients, and other small molecules to move between them What are the 4 basic types/groups of tissue? Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and Nervous
Briefly describe the function of the basement membrane of epithelial tissue The underside of epithelial tissue is anchored by a basement membrane to connective tissue How are epithelial tissues named? - by what characteristics They are classified according to the shape and numbers of layers of cells Describe the structure and list the functions of the various epithelial tissues, including glandular epithelium Name and describe the various structural types of exocrine glands Secrete their products into ducts that open onto a surface Define Extracellular Matrix of connective tissue In the connective tissue, matrix is secreted by connective tissue cells into the space surrounding them, where it serves to bind cells together Describe the 3 main types of cells and 3 main types of fibers found in connective tissues Fibroblasts, Macrophages, and Mast Collagenous, Elastic, and Reticular
Name the 3 layers of the skin. What tissues comprise each layer? What are the special features of each layer? Epidermis, Dermis, Subcutaneous Describe the strata of the epidermis? How does the layers differ? Describe the various substances that color the skin Melanin production disease factors that affect skin coloration Describe the vascularization( location of blood vessles) of the skin How are fingerprints created on the skin? Form from undulations of the dermis and epidermis at the distal end of the palmar surface of a fi nger What is the function of the nerve tissue in the skin? Nerve tissue transfers signals in the body and its organ to tell the body how to respond to changes in its internal and external environments
Name the parts of a nail. Name the substances that creates the hardness of a nail Nail plate, Nail bed, and Lunula What are the parts and composition of a hair and ts follicle Name and describe two forms of melanin that give hair its color? Eumelanin is brownish-black and Pheomelanin is blond and red Describe the function of the arrector pili muscle Is attached to hair follicle; when muscle contracts the hair stands on end, raising goose bumps; triggered if a person is emotionally upset or very cold Describe the structure and function of sebaceous glands Contain groups of specialized epithelial cells; Open directly onto the surface of the skin and excretes sebum Describe the structure and function of eccrine and apocrine sweat glands Eccrine sweat glands respond to body temperature elevated by environmental heat or exercise; Apocrine sweat glands wet certain areas of skin when a person is nervous or stressed Describe the structure and function of ceruminous Ear wax
How can skin cancer be prevented? Use sunscreen with high SPF, cover your skin, and avoid the sun between the hours of 10 and 2. What are the 3 types of skin cancer? There are three major types of skin cancers: basal cell carcinoma (BCC), squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), and melanoma Which type of skin cancer is most likely to develop?
