Docsity
Docsity

Prepare for your exams
Prepare for your exams

Study with the several resources on Docsity


Earn points to download
Earn points to download

Earn points by helping other students or get them with a premium plan


Guidelines and tips
Guidelines and tips

ANP 1105 MIDTERM 1 LECTURE NOTES, Lecture notes of Anatomy

THIS DOCUMENT COVERS THE LECTURES TAUGHT IN PREPERATION FOR THE FIRST MIDTERM

Typology: Lecture notes

2023/2024

Uploaded on 10/03/2023

julia-wessman
julia-wessman 🇨🇦

1 document

1 / 12

Toggle sidebar

This page cannot be seen from the preview

Don't miss anything!

bg1
Topic 1A: Structural Organization of the Human Body
1.1 Define anatomy and physiology and describe their subdivision
Anatomy: study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another
- Gross or Macroscopic anatomy: study of large body structures
- Regional anatomy: study of structures in a particular region
- Systemic anatomy: study of structures system by system
- Surface anatomy: study of internal structures as they relate to the
overlying skin surface
- Microscopic anatomy: study of structures too small to be seen with the naked eye
- Cytology: study of cells
- Histology: study of tissues
- Developmental anatomy: study of changes that occur throughout the lifespan
- Embryology: study of developmental changes that occur before birth
Physiology: study of how the structure works
- Based on organ systems
- Focuses on cellular and molecular levels of the body
- Basic chemical and physical properties:
1. Electrical currents
2. Pressure
3. Movement
1.2 Explain the principle of complementarity
Principle of complementary of structure and function: function always reflects structure, and
what a structure can do depends on its specific form
- Bone: support organs due to containing hard mineral deposits
- Bloods: flows in one directions through the heart due to the hearts valves that prevent
backflow
- Lungs: site for gas exchange due to the air sac’s walls that are very thin
1.3 Describe the levels of structural organization that make up the human body
1. Chemical level: atoms, molecules, organelles
2. Cellular level: single cell
- Cells: fundamental structural & functional unit of a living thing. Smallest unit that
can perpetuate life
3. Tissue level: groups of cells similar in structure and function
- Connective tissue
- Epithelial tissue
- Muscle tissue
- Nervous tissue
pf3
pf4
pf5
pf8
pf9
pfa

Partial preview of the text

Download ANP 1105 MIDTERM 1 LECTURE NOTES and more Lecture notes Anatomy in PDF only on Docsity!

Topic 1A: Structural Organization of the Human Body 1.1 Define anatomy and physiology and describe their subdivision ● Anatomy: study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another

  • Gross or Macroscopic anatomy: study of large body structures
    • Regional anatomy: study of structures in a particular region
    • Systemic anatomy: study of structures system by system
    • Surface anatomy: study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface
  • Microscopic anatomy: study of structures too small to be seen with the naked eye
    • Cytology: study of cells
    • Histology: study of tissues
  • Developmental anatomy: study of changes that occur throughout the lifespan
    • Embryology: study of developmental changes that occur before birth ● Physiology: study of how the structure works
  • Based on organ systems
  • Focuses on cellular and molecular levels of the body
  • Basic chemical and physical properties:
  1. Electrical currents
  2. Pressure
  3. Movement 1.2 Explain the principle of complementarity Principle of complementary of structure and function: function always reflects structure, and what a structure can do depends on its specific form
  • Bone: support organs due to containing hard mineral deposits
  • Bloods: flows in one directions through the heart due to the hearts valves that prevent backflow
  • Lungs: site for gas exchange due to the air sac’s walls that are very thin 1.3 Describe the levels of structural organization that make up the human body
  1. Chemical level: atoms, molecules, organelles
  2. Cellular level: single cell
  • Cells: fundamental structural & functional unit of a living thing. Smallest unit that can perpetuate life
  1. Tissue level: groups of cells similar in structure and function
  • Connective tissue
  • Epithelial tissue
  • Muscle tissue
  • Nervous tissue
  1. Organ level: contains two or more types of tissues
  2. Organ system level: organs that work closely together to accomplish a common purpose
  3. Organismal level: all organs systems combined to make whole organism 1.4 Cells: summarize the major organelles and structures found in cells Basic 3 parts of a cell:
  4. Plasma membrane: flexible our boundary
  5. Cytoplasm: intracellular fluid containing organelles
  6. Nucleus: DNA containing control center Extracellular materials: substance found outside cells
  • Interstitial fluid: fluid cells are submersed in
  • Blood plasma: fluid of the blood
  • Cerebrospinal fluid: fluid surrounding nervous system organs
  • Extracellular matrix: substance acting as glue to holds cells together Cytoplasm: all cellular material located between plasma membrane and nucleus. Composed of cytosol, inclusions and organelles Mitochondria: “power plant” of cells, providing most of its ATP supply
  • Cristae: double membranes with many folds enclosing mitochondria Endoplasmic reticulum: series of parallel, interconnected costerns
  • Rough ER: external surface attached with ribosomes
  • Smooth ER: enzymes found in its plasma membrane (integral proteins) Golgi apparatus:
  1. Transport vesicles from ER fuse
  2. Proteins or lipids taking inside to be modifies, tagged, sorted and packaged
  3. Controls which of three pathways final products will take
  • Pathway A: secretory vesicles
  • Pathway B: vesicles with lipids or transmembrane proteins to insert directly into membrane
  • Pathway C: Lysosomes with digestives enzymes stay in cells holding content until needed Peroxisomes: contain detoxifying substances to neutralize toxins and play a role in breakdown and synthesis of fatty acids
  • Free radicals: toxic, highly reactive molecules. Natural by-products of cellular metabolism
  • Oxidase: detoxifier that uses oxygen to convert toxins to hydrogen peroxide
  • Catalase: detoxifier that converts hydrogen peroxide to water

Define epithelial tissue; list 6 functions associated with epithelia Epithelial tissue: sheet of cells that covers body surface or cavities

  • Covering and lining epithelia: on external and internal surfaces
  • Glandular epithelia: 1+ cells that makes and secrets secretions
    • Endocrine: internally secreting (hormones and messenger chemicals). Ductless
    • Exocrine: externally secreting into ducts (sweat)
      • Unicellular: 1 cell (ex. goblet cells)
      • Multicellular: 2+ cell (ex. salivary) Modes of secretion:
  1. Merocrine: secrete by exocytosis as they’re produced
  2. Holocrine: accumulate products within until they rupture
  3. Apocrine: accumulates products within, only when apex ruptures Types of epithelial tissue:
  4. Simple squamous epithelium: single layer of flattened cells and sparse cytoplasm. Located where rapid diffusion is key
  • Endothelium: lining of lymphatic vessels, blood vessels and heart
  • Mesothelium: serous membranes in the ventral body cavity
  1. Simple cuboidal epithelium: single layer of cube like cells for secretion and absorption. Forms walls of smallest ducts of glands and kidney tubules
  2. Simple columnar epithelium: single layer of tall cells. Involved in absorption & secretion of mucus, enzymes and other substances. In digestive tract, gallbladder, glands, bronchi, and uterine tubes
  3. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium: single layer of cells of differing heights. Involved in secretion and movement of music via cilia. In upper respiratory tract, large gland ducts and tubules in testes
  4. Stratified squamous epithelium: 2+ layers of cells. Basal layers are cuboidal or columnar and the apical layer is flattened. Keratinized cells are found in skin. Located in areas of high wear and tear
  5. Transitional epithelium: 2+ layers of squamous cells, basal layer is cuboidal and columnar cells. Able to change shape when stretched, allows for flow of urine and stretches for more storage space (bladder) Functions of epithelia:
  6. Protection
  7. Absorption
  8. Filtration
  9. Excretion
  10. Secretion
  11. Sensory reception

Distinguishing characteristics of epithelia:

  1. Polarity: apical and basal surfaces; apical surfaces include microvilli or cilia
  2. Specialized contacts: tight junctions and desmosomes
  3. Supported by connective tissue: membrane of basal lamina and reticular lamina
  4. Avascular, but innervated: has no blood vessels but is supplied by nerve fibers
  5. Regeneration: high regenerative capacity Describe the types connective tissue found in the body
  6. Connective Tissue-Proper: Areolar :
  • supports and binds other tissues
  • Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers
  • Loose fibers allows increased ground substance which holds interstitial fluid
  • Has macrophages and fat cells
  1. Connective Tissue-Proper: Adipose:
  • White fat
  • Cells are called adipocytes
  • Function in shock absorption, insulation and energy storage
  • Brown fat
  • Uses lipid fuels to heat bloodstream
  1. Connective Tissue-Proper: Reticular:
  • Thinner reticular fibers
  • Reticular cells: secrete reticular fibers of thin collagen
  • stroma: reticular fibers to act as support for blood cells
  1. Connective Tissue-Proper: Dense-Regular:
  • High tensile strength to withstand high tension and stretching
  • Closely packed thick collagen fiber bundles
  1. Connective Tissue-Proper: Dense-Elastic:
  • Some ligaments are elastic
  • Found in large walls of arteries (stretch and recoil to push blood) Topic 2: Cellular Physiology of Nerve and Muscle I Membrane transport 2.1.1 Describe the structure of the plasma membrane Plasma membrane: active selectively permeable barrier separating intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid. Allows the cell to respond to changes and for cell-to-cell communication
  • Fluid mosaic: specialized membrane proteins float through fluid membrane resulting (made up of many pieces pattern)
  • Glycolax: sugars on the surface
  • Cell junctions: membrane structures to help hold cells together
  • Osmolarity: measures the concentration of the total number of solute particles in solvent. Total concentration of solute particles in solution (mOsmol/L) - 1 mM NaCl = 2 mOsmol/L - 1 mM glucose = 1 mOsmol/L
  • Tonicity: ability of solution to change shape of cell in solution (hypertonic, hypotonic and isotonic) - Hypertonic: cells lose water and shrink - Hypotonic: cells take in water and expand - Isotonic: cells remain normal size Neurons 2.2.1 Identify the different regions of the neuron and associate each region with the functions of reception, propagation and transmission of nerve impulses Receptive region: Dendrites receive signals from other neurons and transport the signals toward the cell body. They are graded potentials which is a change in membrane potential via stimulus.
  • Graded potential: short-lived, localized changes in membrane potential
  • Postsynaptic potential: neuron graded potential. Tigger is neurotransmitter released by neuron in pathway
  • Presynaptic potential: first neuron Conductive region: occurs in the axon. The axon generates nerve impulses and transmits them away from the cell body along the axolemma to the axon terminals. Secretory region: neurotransmitters are released into the extracellular space when the impulse reaches the axon terminals.
  • Membrane potential: voltage across the plasma membrane
  • Voltage: measure of potential energy generated by separation of oppositely charged ions
  • Resting membrane potential: the voltage across plasma membrane during resting state of excitable cell (50-90 millivolts) 2.2.2. Explain the phenomena (diffusion of ions, types of ion channels) that are responsible for the electrical activity of neurons (resting membrane potential, action potential) Membrane ion channels: large proteins serve as selective membrane ion channels
  • Leakage (nongated) channels: always open (note: proteins are still involved)
  • Gated channels: proteins change shape to open/close the channel
  1. Chemically gated channels: open only with binding of a specific chemical ( neurotransmitter/hormone )
  2. Voltage-gated channels: open and close in response to changes in membrane potential
  3. Mechanically gated channels: open and close in response to physical deformation of receptors (sensory receptors) 2.2.3 Describe the factors that influence propagation of the action potential along an axon

Action potential: reversal of membrane potential. Only occurs in excitable cells and generated in the axon. Depolarization is followed by repolarization. The stimulus changes the membrane's permeability by opening voltage-gated channels activated by graded potentials.

  1. Resting state: all gated Na+^ and K+^ channels are closed
  2. Depolarization: Na+^ channels open, allowing Na+^ entry
  3. Repolarization: Na+^ channels are inactivating K+^ channels open, allowing K+^ to exit
  4. Hyperpolarization: some K+^ channels remain open, and Na+^ channels reset Voltage-gated Na+^ channels:
  • Closed: at resting state
  • Open: by depolarization allowing Na+^ to enter cell
  • Inactivated: channels automatically blocked by inactivation gates soon after opening Voltage gated K+^ channels:
  • Closed: at resting state
  • Open: by depolarization allowing K+^ to exit the cell Sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+^ ATPase) stabilizes resting membrane potential. It maintains concentration gradients for Na+^ and K+. 3 Na+^ are pumped out while 2 K+^ are pumped back in Threshold: weakest stimulus capable of producing a response in an excitable tissue
  • Outward current created by K+^ movement is exactly equal to th inward current created by Na+ Propagation of the axon: AP must be propagated along the axons entire length. AP is generated by the influx of Na+^ which depolarizes away from the origin of the nerve impulse which opens voltage-gated channels and triggers action potential. 2.2.4 Explain the mechanisms of synaptic transmission (synapse, post-synaptic potentials, synaptic integration) Synapse: area of junction between 2 neurons and their target
  1. Voltage-gated Ca^2 channels open, Ca^2 enters axon terminal
  2. Neurotransmitter releases
  3. Neurotransmitter diffuses to postsynaptic receptors
  4. Ion channels open, creating graded potentials
  5. Neurotransmitter effects are terminated
  • Reuptake by astrocytes or axon terminal
  • Degradation by enzymes
  • Diffusion away from synaptic cleft Post-synaptic potentials: receptor proteins and ion channels binds to neurotransmitter to open the chemically gated channels
  • Excitatory (EPSP): neurotransmitter binding opens chemically gated channels. The Na+ influx is greater than K+^ efflux and it moves closer to threshold
  • Inhibitory (IPSP): neurotransmitter binding to the receptor opens chemically gated channels that allow entrance/exit of ions that cause hyperpolarization. Opens chemically gated K+^ or Cl-^ channels.

Excitation-Contraction Coupling: transmission of AP along the sarcolemma causes myofilaments to slide. Rise in intracellular calcium ions leads to sliding of filaments.

  • Overall:
    • Distance between Z disc reduced
    • I bands shorten
    • H zone disappears
    • A bands move closer together, stay the same length 2.3.2. Describe the neuromuscular junction
  • Nerve-muscle synapse identical to nerve-nerve synapse
  • Skeletal muscles are stimulated by motor neurons of somatic ns - 1 NMJ in synaptic cleft Motor end plate: chemical synapse between the terminal part of the motor neuron and the target muscle Acetylcholine (ACh): neurotransmitter that transmits AP from neuron to muscle cell. AP binds to ACh receptors on sarcolemma which opens chemically gated ion channels.
  • Results in end plate potential: local depolarization
  • Depolarization (Na+) followed by repolarization (K+) for neuron AP
  • Once initiated, an all-or-none response occurs 2.3.3. Describe the contractile properties of skeletal muscle (motor unit, isotonic & isometric contractions, spatial & temporal summation, etc) Motor unit: motor neuron + all muscle fibers it supplies. (when neuron fires, all fibers contract)
  1. Motor nerve
  2. Hundreds of motor neuron axons
  3. Each axon to many axonal terminals
  4. Each axonal terminal to NMJ of a single muscle fiber (cell) Recruitment: stimulus is sent to more muscle fibers for more control
  • Threshold stimulus: stimulus is strong enough to cause first observable contraction
  • Maximal stimulus: strongest stimulus that increase contractile force (more motor units recruited)
  • Smallest motor units are controlled by most excitable neurons
  • More intense stimulation recruits larger motor units Contraction produces muscle tension
  • Isotonic contractions: muscle changes in length and moves the load ( thin filaments are sliding )
  • Concentric contraction: muscle shortens and does work
  • Eccentric contractions: muscle contracts as it lengthens
  • Isometric contractions: tensions increasons to muscles capacity but it neither shortens nor lengthens. ( thin filaments do not move ) 2.3.4. Associate various muscle types with their metabolism and their speed of contraction and rate of fatigue Direct phosphorylation of ADP by CP
  • Energy source: CP
  • Oxygen use: none
  • Products: 1 ATP / CP
  • Duration: 15 sec Anaerobic pathway: glycolysis and lactic acid formation
  • Energy source: glucose
  • Oxygen use: none
  • Products: 2 ATP / glucose, lactic acid
  • Duration: 30-40 sec Aerobic pathway: aerobic respiration
  • Energy source: glucose, pyruvic acid
  • Oxygen use: required
  • Products: 32 ATP / glucose
  • Duration: hours Fatigue: physiological inability to contract despite continued simulation. Due to:
  • Ionic imbalance: K+, Na+, and Ca2+^ levels can change disrupting membrane potential of muscle cells
  • Decreased ATP and increased Mg++
  • Decreased glycogen Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC): extra amount of oxygen needed to be taken in for muscle to return to pre-exercise state which means:
  • Oxygen reserves are replenish
  • Lactic acid is reconverted to pyruvate acid
  • Glycogen stores are placed
  • ATP and CP reserves are resynthesized Metabolic characteristics Slow oxidative fibers Fast oxidative fibers Fast glycolytic fibers Myosin ATPase activity Slow Fast Fast Myoglobin content High High Low Structural characteristics Slow oxidative fibers Fast oxidative fibers Fast glycolytic fibers Mitochondria Many Many Few Capillaries Many Many Few