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This comprehensive document provides an in-depth exploration of the anatomy and physiology of the human body. It delves into the basic functions of living organisms, the structure and function of various body systems, and the levels of organization within the human body. Topics such as gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy, the integumentary system, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the nervous system, the endocrine system, the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the urinary system, and the reproductive systems. Additionally, it discusses the concept of homeostasis and its importance in maintaining a stable internal environment. This document serves as a valuable resource for students and learners interested in understanding the intricate workings of the human body.
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basic functions of all living things - ANS--responsiveness
organ level - ANS-Organ: Two or more tissues working together to perform specific functions levels of organization: organ system level - ANS-Two or more organs working together to perform specific functions levels of organization: organism level - ANS-all organ systems working together to maintain health the integumentary system - ANS--skin
negative feedback - ANS-the diminution of an effect by its own influence on the process giving rise to it, as when a high level of a hormone in the blood may inhibit further secretion of that hormone. Most common form of feedback loop The action/response opposes the stimulus Re-establishes the balance
cells historical perspective - ANS-The smallest unit or the building blocks of all living things, including human, animal and plants Late 1600s: Robert Hooke plant tissue-cork crude microscope cube like structures long rows of monk rooms at the monastery cells different layers - ANS-mesoderm: middle endoderm: internal ectoderm: external osteoblast - ANS-form bones osteoclast - ANS-remove minerals from bones cell division / cycle and cancer - ANS-~1.5 M new cancer patients in US ~0.5 M deaths in US ~13% of all deaths ~7.6 M deaths worldwide in 2007 Cell division Cell cycle checkpoint DNA repair Cancer stem cells: can generate various cell types celular size and shapes - ANS-Cells vary in length ~ 2 micrometers to over a meter or more in nerve cells that cause you to wiggle your toes Cells have different shapes cell types: muscle cell, nerve cell, bone cell, gland cell, blood cell, reproductive cell nucleus - ANS-located near the center of the cell, surrounded by semi-fluid cytoplasm
This compartmentalization is essential to perform their functions mitochondria - ANS-Sausage shaped organelle
Abundant in phagocytes, the cell disposes of bacteria and cell debris Its enzymes are formed by ribosomes and packaged by the Golgi Lysosome membrane is quite stable, but ruptures when the cell is injured or deprived of O2. When lysosomes rupture, the cell self-digests peroxisomes - ANS-Are membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase enzymes that use molecular oxygen to detoxify a number of harmful or poisonous substances, including alcohol and formaldehyde. The most important function is to remove free radicals Converts free radical to H2O2. The enzyme catalase then converts excess peroxide to H2O Are especially high in liver and kidney cells, which are very active in detoxification cytoskeleton - ANS-An elaborate network of protein structures extend throughout the cytoplasm The network determines cell shape, supports other organelles Provides the machinery needed for the intracellular transport Various cellular movements Made up of Microtubules (determine the overall shape), Intermediate filaments (resist pulling forces on the cell) And Microfilaments (cell motility) centrioles - ANS-Lie close to the nucleus Rod shaped bodies that lie at right angles to each other Generate microtubules Cell division Direct the formation of the mitotic spindle cilia and flagella - ANS-Whip like cellular extensions that move substances along the cell surface. Example: the ciliated cells of the respiratory system lining move mucus up and away from the lungs.
If the projections formed by the centrioles are substantially longer, they are called "Flagella" Example: Sperm, which has a single propulsive flagellum called its tail. Cilia propel other substances across a cell surface whereas a flagellum propels the cell itself Palpation - ANS-feel of something Auscultation and percussion - ANS-sound gross anatomy - ANS-what you can see with your eyes histology - ANS-what you can see with a microscope how many variables do you change in an experiment - ANS- 1 what is the next smallest in the hierarchy of the human body after cells - ANS- organelles true or false your hands should be facing forward in anatomical position - ANS-true proximal is to distal as anterior is to - ANS-posterior plane that divides the body into a left and right side - ANS-sagittal what organ divides the trunk and abdomen - ANS-diaphragm parietal layer - ANS-lines a cavity visceral layer - ANS-lines the surface of a organ homeostasis - ANS-the body's reaction to change to keep "normal" status for optimal function negative feedback loop - ANS-body detects a bad change and tries to reverse them positive feedback loop - ANS-body detects a change and causes greater change in the same direction effectors - ANS-structures that get signal from the brain and cause change elections - ANS-negatively charged found surrounding the atom ionization - ANS-process of atoms giving up or taking electrons
free radicals - ANS-molecules with an extra electron benefits of oxygen free radicals - ANS-killing bacteria and viruses through wbc dangers of free radicals - ANS-damages cells antioxidants - ANS-control free radicals hydroxyl functional group - ANS- methyl functional group - ANS- carboxyl functional group - ANS- amino functional group - ANS- phosphate functional group - ANS- amino acids - ANS-protein DNA, RNA - ANS-nucleotide monosaccharide - ANS-polysaccharide fatty acid, glycerol - ANS-lipid, fat recognition proteins - ANS-identify 'self' from 'non self' how proteins help with movement into cell - ANS-transport proteins help move things through the cell membrane dehydration synthesis - ANS-take the water out to things to bring molecules together peptide bonds - ANS-bond that holds 2 proteins together 8 "essential amino acids" - ANS-amino acids your body can't produce and need to be acquired through your diet conformation of proteins - ANS-3D shape of a protein that is essential to proteins function change in conformation or amino acid sequence - ANS-alters protein's function denaturation - ANS-outside environment changing the shape of a protein therefore it's function
carbohydrates - ANS-easiest nutrient to convert to usable energy (to sugar) glucose - ANS-main energy source for most cells ("blood sugar") galactose - ANS-chemically similar to glucose (needs to be converted to glucose to use) fructose - ANS-common sugar found in fruits 3 main monosaccharides - ANS-glucose galactose fructose 3 main disaccharides - ANS-sucrose lactose maltose sucrose - ANS-common table sugar digested as 1 glucose and 1 fructose lactose - ANS-milk sugar digested as 1 glucose and 1 galactose maltose - ANS-malt sugar from starch digestion digested as 2 glucose dehydration synthesis - ANS-how disaccharides are linked hydrolysis - ANS-how disaccharides are broken into monosaccharides polysaccharides - ANS-large carbohydrate polymers made up of glucose monomers cellulose - ANS-structural carb in plants can't be digested by humans starch - ANS-main digestable polysaccharide made by plants glycogen - ANS-energy storage carb produced by humans DNA - ANS-extremely long polymers of nucleotides in nucleus genetic information to make proteins RNA - ANS-"disposable DNA"
upper limit of cell size is dictated by what - ANS-volume and surface area (effective diffusion (O2 in and CO2 out) proteins in plasma membrane - ANS-regulate movement in and out interaction between other cells glycoprotein - ANS-protein + sugar glycolipid - ANS-protein + lipid receptor membrane proteins - ANS-recieve signals from other cells enzyme membrane proteins - ANS-breakdown of chemical signals channel proteins - ANS-allow solute and large hydrophilic molecules in and out ligand-gated - ANS-channel protein that is always open voltage-gated - ANS-channel proteins thats only allow molecules to pass under certain circumstances cell identity proteins - ANS-identify self from non self cell adhesion proteins - ANS-help cells attach to things solution - ANS-solute dissolved in solvent solute - ANS-liquid portion in solution solvent - ANS-matter dissolved in solution osmosis - ANS-movement of water from low concentration to high concentration hypertonic - ANS-concentration of solute is greater outside than inside cell hypotonic - ANS-concentration of solute is lower outside than inside isotonic - ANS-concentration of solute is same inside as outside facilitated diffusion - ANS-movement down concentration gradient (high to low) no ATP active diffusion - ANS-movement against concentration gradient (low to high) requires ATP uniporter - ANS-1 solute moving in 1 direction
synporter - ANS-2 solutes in 1 direction antiporter - ANS-2 solutes in opposite directions vesicular transport - ANS-large number of large molecules being transported via vesicle endocytosis and exocytosis - ANS-types of vesicular transport endocytosis - ANS-particles or liquid being brought into the cell via vesicle exocytosis - ANS-particles or liquid being sent out of the cell via vesicle phagocytosis - ANS-cell engulfing particle (ex. neutrophils use this to eat bacteria and kill it) pinocytosis - ANS-cell taking in droplets of liquid non specific receptor mediated endocytosis - ANS-very selective kind of endocytosis cell only takes in certain solutes (lock and key) involves receptors nucleus - ANS-center of the cell with its own phospholipid bilayer containing DNA rough ER - ANS-dotted with ribosomes for protein synthesis smooth ER - ANS-involved with the synthesis of lipids to make new membranes contributes to detoxification of drugs and alcohol (enzymes in liver) ribosomes - ANS-make proteins by reading mRNA lysozomes - ANS-lysozomal enzymes break down macromolecules peroxisomes - ANS-oxidative enzymes use hydrogen peroxide to release free radical to kill pathogens golgi apparatus - ANS-sacs near rough ER modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from ER endoplasmic reticulum - ANS-series of networks adjacent to the nucleus mitochondria - ANS-production of ATP thought to have once been its own bacteria can track maternal lineage