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Anatomy and physiology - EXAM 1, Q&A
(2023 Update)
basic functions of all living things - ANS--responsiveness
- growth
- reproduction
- movement
- metabolism anatomy - ANS-structure
- cutting open study of the structure of the human body
- external and internal
- physical relationships between body parts physiology - ANS-study of function of anatomical structure
- how organs work separate and together gross anatomy - ANS-include:
- surface anatomy: what you can see on surface, study of general form and superficial markings
- regional anatomy: study of all superficial and internal features of a specific region of the body systemic anatomy: study of the structure of major organ systems microscopic anatomy - ANS-includes:
- cytology: study of cells
- histology: study of tissues and organs under a microscope levels of organization ** - ANS--molecule-cell-tissue-organ-organ system- organism levels of organization : chemical level - ANS--Atoms are the smallest stable units of matter
- Atoms combine to form molecules
- Molecular shape defines function levels of organization : cellular level - ANS--Cells are the smallest living units
- Cellular structures have specific functions
- Different cell types have different functions levels of organization: tissue level - ANS--A collection of cells working together to perform a specific function
- 4 basic tissue types Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues levels of organization:
organ level - ANS-Organ: Two or more tissues working together to perform specific functions levels of organization: organ system level - ANS-Two or more organs working together to perform specific functions levels of organization: organism level - ANS-all organ systems working together to maintain health the integumentary system - ANS--skin
- Protects against environmental hazards
- Helps control body temperature
- Sensory information the skeletal system - ANS--bones
- Provides support
- Protects tissues
- Stores minerals
- Forms blood cells
- calcium is important for muscle function
- body regulate Ca+ if not enough it will take from bones
- axial skeleton: skull and ribs
- appendicular skeleton: limbs the muscular system - ANS--Allows for movement
- Provides protection and support
- Produces heat when burning energy
- skeletal voluntary muscle
- muscle contract when cold "shivering" include: axial muscle, appendicular muscle, tendons the nervous system - ANS--Directs immediate responses to stimuli, usually by coordinating the activities of other organ systems
- Provides and interprets sensory information
- Cognitive functions
- central nervous system: brain and spinal cord
- peripheral nervous system: peripheral nerves the endocrine system - ANS--PRODUCE HORMONES
- Directs long-term changes in activities of other organ systems
- pharynx, salivary gland, mouth and teeth gallbladder - ANS-store bile the urinary system - ANS-Eliminates excess water, salts, and waste products the male reproductive system - ANS-produce sex cells and hormones prostate gland - ANS-secrete fluid that nourishes and protect sperm seminal gland - ANS-hold liquid that mix with sperm ductus deferens - ANS-carry sperm epididymis - ANS-store sperm scrotum - ANS-skin containing testicles the female reproductive system - ANS--Produces sex cells and hormones
- Supports embryonic and fetal development from fertilization to birth homeostasis - ANS--The maintenance of a stable internal environment
- Body temperature, pH, blood ion concentration, blood glucose, blood pressure, oxygenation
- body ability to maintain balance
- Every organism must maintain homeostasis to survive!
- Adjustments in physiological systems are made to preserve homeostasis necessary for organism to live homeostatic regulation - ANS-A typical homeostatic loop contains: A receptor Sensitive to a stimulus A control center Receives and processes information and sends a "command" An effector cell or organ Responds to oppose or enhance the stimulus positive feedback - ANS-the amplification of an effect by its own influence on the process that gives rise to it
- Less common
- The response amplifies the stimulus
- Usually for regulation of events that must be addressed rapidly (e.g. coagulation, labor, breastfeeding)
negative feedback - ANS-the diminution of an effect by its own influence on the process giving rise to it, as when a high level of a hormone in the blood may inhibit further secretion of that hormone. Most common form of feedback loop The action/response opposes the stimulus Re-establishes the balance
- TOO MUCH THEN IT WILL DECREASE IT
- TOO LITTLE THEN IT WILL INCREASE IT surface anatomy - ANS-deals with anatomical features that can be studied by sight, without dissection. it is a branch of gross anatomy, along with endoscopic and radiological anatomy. is a descriptive science. anatomical landmarks - ANS-is a biologically-meaningful point in an organism. experts define anatomical points to ensure their correspondences within the same species. Examples in shape of a skull are the eye corner, tip of the nose, jaw, etc. anatomical regions - ANS-The anatomical regions compartmentalize the human body. Just like on a map, a region refers to a certain area. The body is divided into two major portions: axial and appendicular. sectional anatomy - ANS-Study of anatomy from transverse: top and bottom sagittal: right and left coronal: front and back oblique sections. anatomical position - ANS--Hands at the sides with the palms facing forward and feet together
- If patient is lying down:
- Supine (face up)
- Prone (face down) . - ANS-. anatomical directions - ANS--Orientation of structures relative to the anatomical position
- Left and right refer to the left and right sides of the subject, not the observer
- Ipsilateral means "on the same side",
- contralateral means "on the opposite side" anterior - ANS-the front , before
- Pleural cavities (right and left): Lungs abdominopelvic cavity - ANS-has 1 serous membrane-lined compartment
- Peritoneal cavity: Liver, spleen, stomach, small intestine, most of the large intestine retroperitoneal cavity - ANS-Pancreas, kidneys, portion of the large intestine are located posterior to the peritoneal cavity pelvic cavity - ANS-Reproductive organs are mainly in the pelvic cavity serous membrane - ANS--Takes the name of the cavity it lines
- Pleura, pericardium, peritoneum
- Visceral layer surrounds the organs/viscera
- Ex: lungs
- Parietal layer lines the wall of the cavities
- The parietal and visceral layers are continuous
- Serous fluid between the layers reduces friction cellular basis of life - ANS--important for cell organization
- made up of primarily four elements: Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Smaller amounts of other elements
- Though 4 elements build cells, other elements are necessary Examples: Calcium important for blood clotting, muscle contraction and relaxation Iron important for hemoglobin, which carries oxygen Iodine important for thyroid hormone that controls metabolism, regulate energy metabolism Sodium and Potassium ions are essential if nerve impulses are to be transmitted and for muscle contraction lipids: synthesize cell membranes nucleic acid: code for proteins genetic materials: important for reproduction life begins with cells - ANS-Cell is a fundamental unit of life cells that form our body can : Grow Reproduce Process information Respond to stimuli Carry out amazing array of chemical reactions
cells historical perspective - ANS-The smallest unit or the building blocks of all living things, including human, animal and plants Late 1600s: Robert Hooke plant tissue-cork crude microscope cube like structures long rows of monk rooms at the monastery cells different layers - ANS-mesoderm: middle endoderm: internal ectoderm: external osteoblast - ANS-form bones osteoclast - ANS-remove minerals from bones cell division / cycle and cancer - ANS-~1.5 M new cancer patients in US ~0.5 M deaths in US ~13% of all deaths ~7.6 M deaths worldwide in 2007 Cell division Cell cycle checkpoint DNA repair Cancer stem cells: can generate various cell types celular size and shapes - ANS-Cells vary in length ~ 2 micrometers to over a meter or more in nerve cells that cause you to wiggle your toes Cells have different shapes cell types: muscle cell, nerve cell, bone cell, gland cell, blood cell, reproductive cell nucleus - ANS-located near the center of the cell, surrounded by semi-fluid cytoplasm
- the control center is the Nucleus
- The DNA contains all the instructions needed for building the whole body
- The instructions are given through building proteins
- DNA is necessary for cell reproduction
- Cell that looses its DNA die
- most of the DNA is often oval or spherical, the shape of the nucleus conforms to the shape of the cell. Example, if the cell is elongated, the nucleus is elongated as well.
- The nuclear envelope
- Carrier mediated transport: big molecule cant pass thru membrane, so it will bind to carrier protein, change confirmation and release it to inside the cell.
- Active transport: require atp molecules, move molecules from low conc. to high conc. cell junction - ANS-Tight junctions: brain, prevent water entering cells Desmosomes: cardiac and muscle cells, keep tissue together Gap junctions: SMALL MOLECULES CAN PASS TRHU Connexons: allow molecules to select calcium cytoplasm - ANS-cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane It consists of Cytosol: Semitransparent fluid that suspends the other elements example water and nutrients Organelles - Metabolic machinery of the cell Inclusions Are chemical substances that may or may not be present-cell type specific Most inclusions are stored nutrients or cell products Example lipid droplets and glycogen granules cytosol - ANS-cell consist of 65% of water which is one of the reasons water is essential for life. In addition to H20, cells are bathed in a dilute salt water called interstitial fluid derived from blood All exchanges between cells and blood are made through this fluid cells and functions - ANS-White blood cells roam freely through the body tissues and protect the body by destroying bacteria and other foreign substances
- make hormones: endocrine cells
- gas exchanges in the lungs: epithelial , alveolar cell
- cleaning the blood (Kidney tubule cells)
- Osteoblasts and osteocytes in bone formation: release acidic protein
- Odotoblasts in Dentin (tooth) formation
- Ameloblasts in enamel (tooth) formation organelles - ANS-Specialized cellular compartments Are bounded by their own membranes similar to plasma membrane to maintain an internal environment quite different that of of the surrounding cytosol
This compartmentalization is essential to perform their functions mitochondria - ANS-Sausage shaped organelle
- double membrane wall The outer membrane is smooth and featureless The inner membrane has shelf-like protrusions called cristae Enzymes dissolved in the fluid within the mitochondria, and enzymes that form part of the cristae membranes, carry out the reactions where oxygen is used to breakdown foods As foods are broken down, energy is released. Some is captured and used to form ATP molecule ATP provides energy for all cellular work
- powerhouse of the cell. Metabolically active cells have higher numbers of mitochondria ribosomes - ANS-Are tiny bi-lobed dark bodies Are the active sites of protein synthesis in the cell Some ribosomes float free in the cytoplasm and manufacture proteins Others attach to membrane and the combination is called "rough endoplasmic reticulum"
- some remain free to produce proteins inside cells
- some attach to ER to produce proteins to be released to other cells endoplasmic reticulum - ANS-calcium store Is a system of fluid filled cisterns (tubules, or canals) that coil and twist through the cytoplasm Accounts for about half of a cell's membranes. Helps in protein transport Two types: Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Rough endoplasmic reticulum rough endoplasmic reticulum - ANS-Attached with ribosomes All the building materials for cellular membranes are generated here. Therefore, it is called "cell's membrane factory" The proteins made on its ribosomes migrate into the tubules of the rough ER, where they fold into their functional "three dimensional shapes and then are dispatched to other areas of the cell in transport vesicles
Abundant in phagocytes, the cell disposes of bacteria and cell debris Its enzymes are formed by ribosomes and packaged by the Golgi Lysosome membrane is quite stable, but ruptures when the cell is injured or deprived of O2. When lysosomes rupture, the cell self-digests peroxisomes - ANS-Are membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase enzymes that use molecular oxygen to detoxify a number of harmful or poisonous substances, including alcohol and formaldehyde. The most important function is to remove free radicals Converts free radical to H2O2. The enzyme catalase then converts excess peroxide to H2O Are especially high in liver and kidney cells, which are very active in detoxification cytoskeleton - ANS-An elaborate network of protein structures extend throughout the cytoplasm The network determines cell shape, supports other organelles Provides the machinery needed for the intracellular transport Various cellular movements Made up of Microtubules (determine the overall shape), Intermediate filaments (resist pulling forces on the cell) And Microfilaments (cell motility) centrioles - ANS-Lie close to the nucleus Rod shaped bodies that lie at right angles to each other Generate microtubules Cell division Direct the formation of the mitotic spindle cilia and flagella - ANS-Whip like cellular extensions that move substances along the cell surface. Example: the ciliated cells of the respiratory system lining move mucus up and away from the lungs.
If the projections formed by the centrioles are substantially longer, they are called "Flagella" Example: Sperm, which has a single propulsive flagellum called its tail. Cilia propel other substances across a cell surface whereas a flagellum propels the cell itself Palpation - ANS-feel of something Auscultation and percussion - ANS-sound gross anatomy - ANS-what you can see with your eyes histology - ANS-what you can see with a microscope how many variables do you change in an experiment - ANS- 1 what is the next smallest in the hierarchy of the human body after cells - ANS- organelles true or false your hands should be facing forward in anatomical position - ANS-true proximal is to distal as anterior is to - ANS-posterior plane that divides the body into a left and right side - ANS-sagittal what organ divides the trunk and abdomen - ANS-diaphragm parietal layer - ANS-lines a cavity visceral layer - ANS-lines the surface of a organ homeostasis - ANS-the body's reaction to change to keep "normal" status for optimal function negative feedback loop - ANS-body detects a bad change and tries to reverse them positive feedback loop - ANS-body detects a change and causes greater change in the same direction effectors - ANS-structures that get signal from the brain and cause change elections - ANS-negatively charged found surrounding the atom ionization - ANS-process of atoms giving up or taking electrons
free radicals - ANS-molecules with an extra electron benefits of oxygen free radicals - ANS-killing bacteria and viruses through wbc dangers of free radicals - ANS-damages cells antioxidants - ANS-control free radicals hydroxyl functional group - ANS- methyl functional group - ANS- carboxyl functional group - ANS- amino functional group - ANS- phosphate functional group - ANS- amino acids - ANS-protein DNA, RNA - ANS-nucleotide monosaccharide - ANS-polysaccharide fatty acid, glycerol - ANS-lipid, fat recognition proteins - ANS-identify 'self' from 'non self' how proteins help with movement into cell - ANS-transport proteins help move things through the cell membrane dehydration synthesis - ANS-take the water out to things to bring molecules together peptide bonds - ANS-bond that holds 2 proteins together 8 "essential amino acids" - ANS-amino acids your body can't produce and need to be acquired through your diet conformation of proteins - ANS-3D shape of a protein that is essential to proteins function change in conformation or amino acid sequence - ANS-alters protein's function denaturation - ANS-outside environment changing the shape of a protein therefore it's function
carbohydrates - ANS-easiest nutrient to convert to usable energy (to sugar) glucose - ANS-main energy source for most cells ("blood sugar") galactose - ANS-chemically similar to glucose (needs to be converted to glucose to use) fructose - ANS-common sugar found in fruits 3 main monosaccharides - ANS-glucose galactose fructose 3 main disaccharides - ANS-sucrose lactose maltose sucrose - ANS-common table sugar digested as 1 glucose and 1 fructose lactose - ANS-milk sugar digested as 1 glucose and 1 galactose maltose - ANS-malt sugar from starch digestion digested as 2 glucose dehydration synthesis - ANS-how disaccharides are linked hydrolysis - ANS-how disaccharides are broken into monosaccharides polysaccharides - ANS-large carbohydrate polymers made up of glucose monomers cellulose - ANS-structural carb in plants can't be digested by humans starch - ANS-main digestable polysaccharide made by plants glycogen - ANS-energy storage carb produced by humans DNA - ANS-extremely long polymers of nucleotides in nucleus genetic information to make proteins RNA - ANS-"disposable DNA"
upper limit of cell size is dictated by what - ANS-volume and surface area (effective diffusion (O2 in and CO2 out) proteins in plasma membrane - ANS-regulate movement in and out interaction between other cells glycoprotein - ANS-protein + sugar glycolipid - ANS-protein + lipid receptor membrane proteins - ANS-recieve signals from other cells enzyme membrane proteins - ANS-breakdown of chemical signals channel proteins - ANS-allow solute and large hydrophilic molecules in and out ligand-gated - ANS-channel protein that is always open voltage-gated - ANS-channel proteins thats only allow molecules to pass under certain circumstances cell identity proteins - ANS-identify self from non self cell adhesion proteins - ANS-help cells attach to things solution - ANS-solute dissolved in solvent solute - ANS-liquid portion in solution solvent - ANS-matter dissolved in solution osmosis - ANS-movement of water from low concentration to high concentration hypertonic - ANS-concentration of solute is greater outside than inside cell hypotonic - ANS-concentration of solute is lower outside than inside isotonic - ANS-concentration of solute is same inside as outside facilitated diffusion - ANS-movement down concentration gradient (high to low) no ATP active diffusion - ANS-movement against concentration gradient (low to high) requires ATP uniporter - ANS-1 solute moving in 1 direction
synporter - ANS-2 solutes in 1 direction antiporter - ANS-2 solutes in opposite directions vesicular transport - ANS-large number of large molecules being transported via vesicle endocytosis and exocytosis - ANS-types of vesicular transport endocytosis - ANS-particles or liquid being brought into the cell via vesicle exocytosis - ANS-particles or liquid being sent out of the cell via vesicle phagocytosis - ANS-cell engulfing particle (ex. neutrophils use this to eat bacteria and kill it) pinocytosis - ANS-cell taking in droplets of liquid non specific receptor mediated endocytosis - ANS-very selective kind of endocytosis cell only takes in certain solutes (lock and key) involves receptors nucleus - ANS-center of the cell with its own phospholipid bilayer containing DNA rough ER - ANS-dotted with ribosomes for protein synthesis smooth ER - ANS-involved with the synthesis of lipids to make new membranes contributes to detoxification of drugs and alcohol (enzymes in liver) ribosomes - ANS-make proteins by reading mRNA lysozomes - ANS-lysozomal enzymes break down macromolecules peroxisomes - ANS-oxidative enzymes use hydrogen peroxide to release free radical to kill pathogens golgi apparatus - ANS-sacs near rough ER modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from ER endoplasmic reticulum - ANS-series of networks adjacent to the nucleus mitochondria - ANS-production of ATP thought to have once been its own bacteria can track maternal lineage
