Bone Tissue and Bone Structure: A Comprehensive Guide, Summaries of Anatomy

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E. Odya,

Anatomy and

physiology

REVIEW SHEET 2

NOTE: This is only a review sheet and NOT a study guide and therefore **exam questions will be drawn from ALL information covered in lecture. Exam Format- same as last time: ● Multiple choice ● Short answer ● Matching- will likely (roughly) spell out a phrase (Halloween theme)

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The Integumentary system** :

1. Name and describe all the strata in the epidermis of thin skin and thick skin. Corneum (superficial), Lucidum (present in thick skin, palm and sole), Granulosum, Spinosum, Basale (deep)
2. Describe the following: a. Tonofilaments i. In stratum spinosum, from intermediate filaments, provide tensile strength b. Langerhans cells i. In stratum spinosum, macrophages that digest harmful bacteria c. Lamellated granules i. In stratum granulosum, secrete glycolipids for use in stratum corneum - > make epidermis waterproof d. Keratohyalin granules i. In stratum granulosum, secrete keratin for use in stratum corneum - > make epidermis tough and abrasive resistant Name Location Function Tonofilaments Stratum Spinosum (^) Intermediate filaments → tensile strength Langerhans’ Cells Stratum Spinosum (^) Epidermal dendritic cells → act as macrOphages tO engulf and digest pathOgens Lamellated Granules Stratum Granulosum (^) Secrete glycOlipids → makes epidermis waterprOOf Keratohyalin Granules Stratum Granulosum Secrete Keratin → makes epidermis tOugh and abrasive-resistant
3. Name and describe the two layers in the dermis a. Superficial papillary layer i. Composed of areolar CT ii. Has dermal papillae- peg-like prOjections that hOuse blOOd capillaries and nerve endings , Meissner’s cOrpuscles → act as tOuch receptOrs

a. No gland in human body uses apocrine mode of secretion b. All derived from epidermis but reside in dermis c. Sweat glands i. AKA sudoriferous glands ii. Simple coiled tubular multicellular exocrine glands iii. Eccrine sweat glands

1. Widely distributed all over body, especially in palms, soles, forehead
2. Secrete sweat
3. Use merocrine mode of secretion
4. Sweat composition a. Hypotonic filtrate of blood b. 99% water c. Antibodies d. Vitamin C e. Salts – NaCl f. Metabolic wastes g. Dermcidin – antimicrobial protein h. pH between 4- 6 = Acidic iv. Apocrine sweat glands
5. Become active after puberty when they are stimulated by the sex steroid hormones
6. Secrete a viscous, yellowish fluid containing fats and proteins
7. Found in armpits and genital areas
8. Use merocrine mode of secretion
9. AKA “OdOriferOus” glands → smelly d. Sebaceous glands i. Also known as oil glands ii. Simple alveolar glands iii. Found all over the body except the palms and soles iv. Secrete an oil substance called sebum into hair follicles and via pores to the surface of the skin v. Secrete via the holocrine mode of secretion
10. Whiteheads
11. Blackheads
12. Acne e. Hair i. Produced by cells in the matrix inside hair follicles ii. Each hair has 2 regions
13. Shaft: region exposed above the skin
14. Root: region below the skin enclosed by the hair follicle iii. Has 3 concentric layers
15. Middle cortex: the largest layer
16. Inner medulla: the core
17. Outer cuticle: a single layer of overlapping cells that protect the underlying layers and prevent hair from matting and split ends

iv. Hirsutism: growth of excessive unwanted hair v. Alopecia: excessive hair loss vi. Function of hair

1. For protection
2. To provide insulation f. Nails i. Made of tightly packed, hard, keratinized epidermal cells ii. Consist of
3. Nail body
4. Free edge
5. Nail root
6. Lunule
7. Hyponychium (underlying the free edge of the nail)
8. Eponychium of cuticle iii. Nails are composed of dead cells impregnated with a tough protective protein called keratin iv. Function of nails
9. Protection
10. Grasping and manipulation objects
11. For scratching
12. What is the acid mantle? a. Protects the skin against bacteria, environmental pollutants, and excessive water loss. b. Made up of natural oils, sweat, and dead skin cells, and is slightly more acidic in nature to prevent these harmful things from penetrating and damaging the skin c. ACIDIC MANTLE– acidic pH of sweat prevents microbial growth on the surface of the skin (ph 4-6)
13. Discuss the thermoregulatory function of the Integumentary system a. The skin’s immense blood supply helps regulate temperature: dilated vessels allow for heat loss, while constricted vessels retain heat. i. The skin regulates body temperature with its blood supply. ii. The skin assists in homeostasis. b. Humidity affects thermoregulation by limiting sweat evaporation and thus heat loss. c. Arrector pili muscles cause hair follicles to move from an oblique to an upright position to trap a layer of air on the surface of the skin in cold weather
14. Name and discuss the 3 types of burns ● 1st degree burn: involves the epidermis; stratum basale is intact. Keratinocytes will undergo mitosis to replace superficial layers destroyed. ● 2nd degree burn: damage to the entire epidermis and papillary layer of the dermis; blisters are formed as a result of fluid from blood vessels that collect in the epidermis dermal layer ● 3rd degree burn: full-thickness burn; the entire epidermis and dermis are destroyed
15. What are the risk factors associated with third degree burn?

● Irregular bones: Facial bones ○ Does not have easily characterized shape and tend to have complex shapes ○ Examples would be the vertebrae that supports the spinal cord and protects it from compressing ○ Other examples would be facial bones, particularly the ones containing sinuses

3. Discuss the differences between the child long bone and the adult long bone a. Child Long Bone i. Red bone marrow: source of blood cells via process called hematopoiesis ii. Epiphyseal plate b. Adult Long Bone i. Yellow bone marrow: no hematopoiesis ii. Epiphyseal line
4. Define a. Diaphysis: shaft or central part of long bone, composed of a thick collar of periosteum; covered compact bone surrounding medullary cavity b. Epiphysis: expanded ends of long bones i. Spongy bone surrounded by thick layer of compact bone c. Medullary cavity- vertical column that houses bone marrow in diaphysis of the bone i. Contains red bone marrow in childhood and yellow bone marrow in adulthood d. Periosteum- outer layer of bone, protects compact bone; double layered i. Outer Fibrous layer: composed of dense irregular CT ii. Inner osteogenic layer: composed of osteoblasts and osteoclasts e. Endosteum- inner membrane of bone that covers internal surfaces and contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts i. Osteoblasts: secrete bone tissue ii. Osteoclasts: resorption of bone tissue (break down bone) f. Sharpey’s fibers- tough collagenous fibers that attaches periosteum to compact bone g. Epiphyseal line - line of compact bone between proximal epiphysis and diaphysis i. Ossified hyaline cartilage ii. In adults only (in children called epiphyseal plate) h. Osteoid- bone matrix in developing fetus that secreted in fibrous membrane; becomes mineralized and traps osteoblasts that become osteocytes i. Osteons - bone cells that make up compact bone tissue j. Canaliculi- tiny canals connecting lacunae to one another and to the Haversian canal(s) to allow for transfer of substances from blood vessels i. Lacunae: hold osteocytes between lamellae k. Lamellae- concentric tubes in an osteon
5. Name and compare the 2 types of prenatal ossification a. Intramembranous ossification: develops from fibrous CT membrane (derived from mesenchyme) i. Forms membrane bones

1. All membrane bones are flat bones, but not all flat bones are membrane bones a. Only cranial and clavicle bones are membrane bones b. Endochondral ossification i. Long bones 1. Hyaline cartilage turned into long bones except for at two positions where it persists a. Metaphysis: epiphyseal diaphyseal junctions i. AKA epiphyseal plate b. Caps: the ends of the epiphyses as the ARTICULAR cartilage ii. Irregular bones iii. Short bones iv. Flat bones (minus membrane bones) v. For all bones except long bones there is complete ossification

6. Name and compare the 2 types of postnatal ossification ● Longitudinal bone growth: occurs in the long bones at the epiphyseal plate, ceases (halts), results in the lengthening of bones ● Appositional bone growth: occurs in all 4 classes of bones, involving the osteogenic layer of the periosteum outside and endosteum inside, occurs throughout life, results in the increase of the width/diameter of all 4 classes of bones
7. The growth promoting effect of growth hormone on longitudinal bone is considered indirect – explain this statement a. All hormones exert their biological effects by first binding to their specific functional receptors b. Growth bone receptors are absent in the epiphyseal plate c. Increase in growth hormone stimulates longitudinal bone growth d. Indirect growth GH indirectly affects longitudinal bone growth because it does not inhibit the function of osteoblasts or chondroblasts. GH indirectly stimulates/causes hyaline cartilage to be ossified into bone tissue. Osteoblasts have receptors for GH which stimulates hepatocytes to produce insulin like growth hormone that chondroblasts have receptors for. As a result, chondroblasts form hyaline cartilage on the epiphyseal surface, which is then calcified into bone tissue, leading to bone lengthening.
8. Give the function of osteoblasts and osteoclasts in bone remodeling ● Osteoblasts: secrete bone tissue ● Osteoclasts- resorb bone tissue/destroy bone tissue
9. Define “epiphyseal plate closure” – how does it occur? What is the consequence of epiphyseal plate closure? ● At the end of adolescence, sex steroid hormones antagonize the actions of growth hormones, causing the ossification of the epiphyseal plates. ○ Height is determined
10. Give one stimulus for the release of each of the following hormones in bone remodeling:

Based on amount of movement allowed at the joint Synarthrotic Joints Synarthroses - immovable joints Amphiarthrotic Joints Amphiarthroses - slightly movable joints Diarthrotic Joints Diarthroses - freely movable joints

2. Discuss the 3 structural classes of joints Structural Classification: Based on
3. material binding the bones at the site
4. absence or presence of a bone cavity Fibrous joints Cartilaginous joints Synovial joints Fibrous CT (dense regular CT) binds the bones Cartilage Ligament binds the bones Joint cavity absent Joint cavity absent Joint cavity present
5. Name and describe the 3 types of fibrous joints. a. Suture- located only in the skull ■ In baby skull- amphiarthrotic ■ In adult skull- synarthrotic b. Gomphoses- only between teeth and bony alveolar sockets ■ Synarthrotic - in adults ■ Amphiarthrotic - in baby c. Syndesmosis- bones connected by ligaments (synarthrotic) or interosseous membranes (amphiarthrotic)
6. Name the type of fibrous joints a. Found only in the skull i. Sutures b. Located between teeth and the alveolar sockets i. Gomphoses c. Formed by the interosseous membrane i. Amphiarthrotic syndesmosis d. Considered amphiarthrotic joints; considered synarthrotic joints i. Ligaments- synarthrotic ii. Interosseous membrane- amphiarthrotic
7. Name and describe the 2 types of cartilaginous joints. ● Synchondroses ○ bones connected by hyaline cartilage ○ Synarthrotic joints

■ Ex: epiphyseal plate that connect the epiphysis and the diaphysis of a long bone (IN CHILDREN ONLY) ● Symphyses ○ bones connected by fibrocartilage ○ Amphiarthrotic joints ■ Ex: fibrocartilage between adjacent vertebrae in the vertebral column allow for bending of vertebral column

6. The epiphyseal plate is an example of which type of cartilaginous joint? ● Synchondroses
7. What type of cartilaginous joint is an intervertebral disc? ● Symphyses
8. Discuss four structural differences between the skeleton of a baby and the skeleton of an adult ■ Baby head is proportionally larger ■ Baby skull sutures are not fused ■ Baby skeleton is made up of hyaline cartilage ■ Baby teeth are not present
9. What is the functional class of all synovial joints?
   • Diarthrotic joints
10. Describe and discuss the function of the following: a. Articular capsule ■ Encloses joint cavity ■ Double layered ■ Outer fibrous layer- made of dense irregular CT ■ Inner synovial membrane- secretes synovial fluid into joint cavity b. Articular cartilage- protects ends of bones c. Synovial fluid- consistency of egg whites, acts as a lubricant to reduce friction at the synovial joint as bones move, filtrate of blood from blood vessels in the fibrous capsule d. Bursae- fluid filled sacs that counteract friction at a joint e. Tendon sheath- connect tendons to bones f. Menisci- thin fibrous cartilage between joints to improve the fit of synovial joint (minimizes wear and tear)
11. Name and define the three types of LIGAMENTS that reinforce synovial joints ■ Named in relation to the articular cartilage a. Extracapsular Ligaments b. Capsular Ligaments c. Intracapsular Ligaments
12. Define the following movements allowed at a synovial joints a. Flexion: mOvement that reduces the angle of the jOint→ articulating surfaces brOught clOse tO each Other b. Extension: mOvement that increases the jOint angle by bringing the jOint back intO anatOmical pOsition→ extension of a flexed jOint back intO anatOmical pOsition c. Adduction: movement of a limb toward the midline of the body d. Abduction: movement of a limb away from the midline of the body

■ Example: only one location in the body, thumb = carpometacarpal joint ■ Movement allowed = flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction f. 6. Ball-and-socket joint: articulating surface of ■ Bone 1: cup-like socket ■ Bone 2: Spherical/hemispherical protrusion ■ Ultimate diarthrotic joint: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction AND rotation

15. Name and describe the type of synovial joint that allows you to move your head to motion “No” Atlanto axial joint: allows for rotation of the head, but not complete rotation due to the resistance of the neck and chest muscles; it is between the atlas and the axis
16. Name and describe the type of synovial joint that allows you to move your head motion “Yes” Atlanto occipital joint: it’s between the occipital condyles and the articulating surface on the atlas
17. Give the location of a Saddle joint in the human body Carpometacarpal joint in the thumb
18. Explain the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis a. Osteoarthritis ■ Wearing down of articular cartilage rubbing against each other as joint moves over the years ■ Age onset → Older people b. Rheumatoid arthritis ■ Due to an autoimmune inflammation of the synovial membrane ■ Causes immobilization of the synovial joint ■ Can happen at any age

BSCI201 Practice Exam Two

1. Select the true statements: a. The epidermis is thicker than the dermis b. The papillary layer of the dermis is composed of dense irregular connective tissue c. The skin accessory structures are derived from the epidermis but reside in the dermis d. Both a and b e. Both b and c
2. Lamellated granules in the stratum granulosum contain a. Glycolipid b. Melanin c. Sebum d. Keratin e. None of the above
3. Select the false statements. Sutures are: a. Located only in the skull b. Diarthrotic joints c. Fibrous joints d. Both a and c e. Both b and c
4. Which of the following joints are considered diarthrotic joints a. Syndesmosis b. Gomphoses c. Synchondroses d. All of the above

correct order. · Stratum corneum · Stratum granulosum · Stratum spinosum · Stratum basale if the question had asked about a cut on your palm or the sole of your foot, you would have stratum lucidum as well

8. What are synarthrotic joints? Synarthrotic joints do not allow for movement Name two types of fibrous joints that are considered synarthrotic joints in an adult: Sutures and Gomphoses
9. Name the three types of ligaments (based on their location to the articular capsule) that reinforce synovial joints Extracapsular (outer) Capsular (middle) Intracapsular (inner)
10. What type of synovial joint is the atlantoaxial joint? Pivot joint Describe the articulating surfaces of the bones at the synovial joint mentioned above: Bone 1: rounded protrusion Bone 2: ring or sleeve Discuss one function of the atlantoaxial joint: Saying “no”
11. Describe the articulating surfaces of the bones forming a saddle joint. Give one location of the saddle joint in the human body Bone 1: concave or convex Bone 2: concave or convex Example: Thumb is the only example
12. Indicate one stimulus for the release of parathyroid hormone Discuss in detail the three biological actions of the parathyroid hormone Stimulus: hypocalcemia
13. Binds to receptors on osteoblasts to produce OAFs for bone resorption and the release of calcium into the blood
14. Binds to receptors on the kidney to stimulate phosphate excretion so only calcium is left in the blood
15. Stimulates formation of 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D
16. Name and define two types of prenatal ossifications a. Intramembranous ossification: develops from fibrous connective tissue membrane

(derived from mesenchyme) i. Forms membrane bones

1. All membrane bones are flat bones, but not all flat bones are membrane bones a. Only cranial and clavicle bones are membrane bones b. Endochondral ossification- forms irregular, short, flat (non membrane), and long bones, all of which have complete ossification EXCEPT for long bones i. Long bones 1. Hyaline cartilage turned into long bones except for at two positions where it persists a. Metaphysis: epiphyseal diaphyseal junctions i. AKA epiphyseal plate b. Caps: the ends of the epiphyses as the ARTICULAR cartilage

14. State Wolff’s Law Bones change depending on environmental stress Discuss two forms of evidences in support of Wolff’s Law: · Hospital patients who are “bedridden” have lower bone density · Dominant hand has denser bones than other hand
15. One function of the integumentary system is thermoregulation. Explain this function when environmental temperature is a) high and b) low High- blood vessels dilate and sweat allows for heat to be released from the body and let it cool down Low- blood vessels constrict, arrector pili muscles in skin contract and cause hair to be in an oblique position. This allows for a layer of air to be trapped close to the skin and retain heat.
16. Name the 5 “zones”
17. Growth (proliferation zone)
18. Hypertrophic zone
19. Calcification zone
20. Ossification zone
21. Resorption Zone
22. Describe the 3 types of skin cancer.
23. Basal Cell Carcinoma: originates from the keratinocytes in the stratum basale (grows slowly, most common)
24. Squamous Cell Carcinoma: originates from the keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum(these keratinocytes aren’t mitotic; grows quickly)
25. Melanoma: originates from the melanocytes in the stratum basale (very aggressive, least common, easy metastasis)
26. Explain why ligaments may take a long time to heal if damaged.