Download Anatomy & Physiology 1 Final Exam Review 2024-2025. Questions & Correct, Verified Answers and more Exams Anatomy in PDF only on Docsity!
Anatomy & Physiology 1 Final Exam Review
2024-2025. Questions and Correct, Verified
Answers. Grade A
Abduction - ANSMovement away from the midline of the body Absolute refractory period - ANSThe minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin. Action Potential - ANSStep 1: Resting Potential Sodium and potassium channels are closed. Na+ rush into the cell; K+ are concentrated inside the cell. Potential difference: -85 mV. Step 2: Depolarization Sodium channels open in response to a stimulus. Na+ rush into the cell according to the dictates of diffusion. Final potential difference +30 mV. Step 3: Repolarization Na+ channels close and K+ channels open. K+ rush out of the cell according to the dictates of diffusion. Potential difference: slightly below -85 mV. Step 4: Resting Conditions Re-established Na+ and K+ channels are closed. Sodium-potassium exchange pump moves Na+ out and K+ in. Resting potential difference: -85 mV.
Hyperpolarization One mechanism for inhibition of the firing of the post-synaptic neuron is to cause hyperpolarization like that which follows the pulse of an action potential. This would raise the threshold for firing of the neuron. Action potentials - ANSThe nerve cells which are used for the perception of external events will, upon being excited by the proper stimulus, transmit an action potential down their axons. When the electrical signal reaches the axon terminal bundle, it interacts with structures called synaptic knobs. It stimulates an influx of calcium (Ca2+) through voltage-gated Ca2+ gates. Active Transport - ANSthe movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher concentration, assisted by enzymes and requiring energy. Na+/K+ pump Adduction - ANSMovement toward the midline of the body Adipose loose Connective Tissue - ANSFunction: -Store triglycerides in a large central area. -Serves as an energy reserve Appearance:
-The principal and most anterior part of the brain in vertebrates, located in the front area of the skull and consisting of two hemispheres, left and right, separated by a fissure. -It is responsible for the integration of complex sensory and neural functions and the initiation and coordination of voluntary activity in the body. *Cerebellum: * -Cerebral Lobe
- Located in the inferior/posterior cranial fossa.
- Controls: Voluntary muscular activities. Brainstem:
- Consists of: Midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata (which is the most vital part of the brain controlling heart and blood vessels, etc.) Diencephalon -Cerebral lobe
- Located in the middle region and is superior to the brain stem.
- Consists of: thalamus, epithalamus, and the hypothalamus.
- Controls: ANS, body temp., thirst and hunger. Anatomy of the Automatic Nervous System (ANS) - ANSRegulates the involuntary vital functions. (Heart and smooth muscle activities) Sensory neurons:
-Deal with receptors in visceral organs. Conveyi nformation from ANS receptors to the CNS. -Monitor internal conditions such as blood CO2 or stretching in the walls of organs or vlood vessels. Motor neurons: conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to help regulate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands. For example: Pupil diameter, heart rate changes, dilation and constriction of blood vessels. Autonomic motor pathways consists of 2 motor neurons:
- Preganglionic neuron: has its cell body in the CNS and its axon travels via a cranial or spinal nerve*.
- Postganglionic neuron: cell body is located in an automatic ganglion in the PNS and its axon travels to the effector (muscle/gland) The motor neuron portion of the ANS is divided into 2 parts: Sympathetic division and Parasympathetic division *Hypothalumus *
- Errector pili muscle - Relaxes hair on the skin. Anatomy of the Automatic Nervous System (ANS): Sympathetic - ANS1. Physical or emotional stress this system represents the "alert system" aka the "fight or flight" mechanism. Physical exertion, fear, embarrassment, anger, excitement, anxiety all stimulate the sympathetic division.
- Fight-or-flight-response - is a release of hormones from the adrenal medulla which causes the following physiological responses when there is sympathetic stimulation:
- Cardiac - Increased heart rate
- Blood Vessels - Vasodilates blood vessels to liver, skeletal and cardiac muscles and constricts blood vessels to organs in the digestive region
- Lungs - Airways dilate/respiration increases
- Gastrointestinal - Decreases digestion and constricts the sphincter
- Urinary - Relaxes bladder
- Liver - Glycogen is broken down into glucose which increases blood glucose levels.
- Eyes - Pupils dilate
- Errector Pili Muscles - Contract and causes hair to stand up. Anatomy of the Ear - ANSOuter ear -Auricle (cartilage covered by skin placed on opposite sides of the head) -Auditory canal (also called the ear canal) eardrum outer layer (also called the Tympanic membrane) Function: The outer part of the ear collects sound. Sound travels through the auricle and the auditory canal, a short tube that ends at the eardrum. Middle ear -Eardrum -Cavity (also called the tympanic cavity) -Ossicles (3 tiny bones that are attached) -Malleus (or hammer) - long handle attached to the eardrum -Incus (or anvil) - the bridge bone between the malleus and the stapes -Stapes (or stirrup) - the footplate; the smallest bone in the body Function: Efficiently transfer acoustic energy from compression waves in air to fluid-membrane waves within the cochlea. Inner ear -Oval window* - connects the middle ear with the inner ear
-Metacarpals (10) -Phalanges (28) Pelvic Girdle Coxal, innominate, or hip bones (2) Lower Extremity -Femur (2) -Tibia (2) -Fibula (2) -Patella (2) -Tarsals (14) -Metatarsals (10) -Phalanges (28) Areolar loose Connective Tissue - ANSFunction: Elasticity, strength, support. Appearance: Fibers (strings), fibroblasts, mast cells (looks like little nipples), embedded in ground substance (white parts). Location: -Subcutaneous layer of the skin. -Superficial dermis.
-Around blood vessels. ATP - ANS(Adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work Mitochondria is the organelle responsible for producing ATP for aerobic production. Autonomic Neurons - ANS-Preganglionic autonomic neurons conduct from spinal cord or brainstem to an autonomic ganglion; post-ganglionic neurons conduct from autonomic ganglia to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, & glandular epithelial tissue Axial Skeleton - ANS80 bones Skull (28) Cranial Bones -Parietal (2) -Temporal (2) -Frontal (1) -Occipital (1) -Ethmoid (1) -Sphenoid (1)
Thoracic Cage -Sternum (1) -Ribs (24) Axillary - ANSSmall pyramidal space between the upper lateral chest and arm Blood Connective Tissue - ANSConsists of: -Red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), platelets (thrombocytes) and suspended in plasma (fluid). Appearance: -Dark purple stained cells are leukocytes. -Pinkish cells are red blood cells. -White space is plasma.
- Tiny dark purple spots scattered throughout are platelets (thrombocytes) Blood-Brain Barrier - ANSBlood vessels (capillaries) that selectively let certain substances enter the brain tissue and keep other substances out Structure: -This "barrier" results from the selectivity of the tight junctions between endothelial cells in CNS vessels, which restricts the passage of solutes Role of Astrocytes:
-Form blood-brain barrier -Astrocytes contribute to differentiation of the blood-brain barrier. Transport across the blood-brain barrier may be passive or active Body cavities w/ details visual - ANS Brachial - ANSPertaining to the arm (from shoulder to elbow) Buccal - ANSCheek Calcaneal - ANSHeel Calcitonin - ANSa hormone secreted by the thyroid that has the effect of lowering blood calcium Cardiac Muscle Tissue - ANSFunction: Involuntarily pumps blood to the body Appearance:
- Branched appearance
- Patterned/orderly
- Intercalculated discs (white lines) with single nucleus -HAS striations Location:
- Controls: ANS, body temp., thirst and hunger.
- Brain Stem
- Stem-like portion of the brain that connects the cerebral hemispheres to the spinal cord
- Consists of: Midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata (which is the most vital part of the brain controlling heart and blood vessels, etc.) & Spinal Cord
- Contain 100 million neurons. Connects to the brain and is protected by the bony vertebral column, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and vertebral ligaments.
- The meninges are the coverings that run continuously around the brain and spinal cord.
- Meningitis is the inflammation of the meninges. Cervical - ANSNeck or neck of an organ structure Chondrocyte - ANSmature cartilage cell a cell that has secreted the matrix of cartilage and become embedded in it
Compact Bone - ANSCanaliculi. Small channels that look like spider webs. Radiate from the lacunae to the osteonic (haversian) canal to provide passageways through the hard matrix. Osteon - aka Haversion system. The whole thing. Lamellae - Concentric rings of matrix. Lacunae - Contains osteocytes (bone cells). Looks like potato eyes. In compact bone, the haversian systems are packed tightly together to form what appears to be a solid mass. The osteonic canals contain blood vessels that are parallel to the long axis of the bone. These blood vessels interconnect, by way of perforating canals, with vessels on the surface of the bone. Ossification: Endochondral ossification Compact bone - ANSFunction: -Support, protection, storage of blood-forming tissue
- Holds yellow bone marrow in the diaphysis Apperance:
- Composed of osseous tissue -Central canal (Haversion canal) is the dark purple center
Continuous Conduction - ANSslow propagation of an action potential along an unmyelinated axon owing to voltage-gated Na+ channels located along the entire length of the cell membrane occurs in unmyelinated axons Contralateral - ANSSituated on or pertaining to the opposite side of the body Cranial - ANSTowards the head or superior end of the body Cranial Nerves Chart visual with functions - ANS Deep - ANSAway from the surface of the body Dense irregular Connective Tissue - ANSFunction: Strength Appearance:
- Randomly arranged collagen fibers with a few fibroblasts.
- Messy, disorderly appearance. Location:
- Dermis of the skin. Dense regular Connective Tissue - ANSFunction:
- Provides strong attachment to tissues. Appearance:
- No striations
- Wavy fibrous patterns. Location:
- Tendons/ligaments
- Attaches to other tissues found in the body. Diencephalon Structures - ANSEpithalamus -Contains pineal gland which secretes melatonin Hypothalamus -- Regulates the balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic activities. -Works in opposite directions. -Either an increase or decrease in sympathetic tone in certain structures, which will produce an opposite effect. Thalamus -each of two gray matter nuclei deep within the brain; responsible for relaying sensory information to the cortex
