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Analyzing Commercials: Recognizing Methods of Persuasion and Becoming a Critical Consumer
By Jennifer Lynn Abernethy
Introduction
It seems as if every day a new piece of technology emerges to make things more accessible to the everyday American, to the everyday citizen of the world. Phones have the ability to surf the Internet, and there is an “app” (it seems) for everything. The click of a button can figuratively take anyone anywhere. My students are used to this world. This closely-connected, remarkably high-tech world that they have grown up in represents a normal progression of technology for them. And as social media sites overshadow face-to-face conversations, phones offer hours upon hours of entertainment, and TV shows are waiting for the viewer to access, the concept of audience has broadened, and the routes to access this audience have multiplied. In order to be an actively analytical member of this audience and therefore evaluate the effect of every gimmick and ploy, my students need the tools to critically analyze the pervasive and persuasive advertisements that bombard them.
There are many forms of advertisements: television commercials; print advertisements in newspapers and magazines; online advertisements on social networks or on the sidebars of favorite websites; and the list goes on. Advertisements have become more pervasive in other genres of entertainment since it became possible for the intended audiences to fast forward through commercials or buy subscriptions to radio stations that boast “commercial free” music Therefore, the persuasive techniques of the ads that do make it to the audience must take full advantage of the target.
The overall purpose of this unit is to introduce students to some persuasive techniques utilized by the advertisements they encounter every day. Whether or not they all view the same genre of advertisement is irrelevant; the unit is meant to emphasize whatever current advertisements are available at the time of its implementation. This unit will focus on television advertisements, and I will provide my students with guiding questions and activities for how to analyze rhetoric, logical fallacies, and the language of advertisements within a commercial. At the end of the unit, I want my students to not only better recognize and evaluate the conventions of television advertisements, but also assess whether or not the techniques they have recognized persuade or dissuade them from purchasing the product, service, or idea. After the first part of the unit is implemented, the culminating assessment involves the students’ creating their own advertisement campaigns, effectively displaying their own manipulation of the techniques. They will also evaluate each other’s campaigns by identifying logical
fallacies and the language of advertisement. This two-part assessment will provide me with a way to assess the students’ ability to create and utilize the conventions we discuss as well as their progress with identifying techniques as critical consumers.
Rationale
I chose to create this unit because my students seem to consider the viewing process— whether viewing a film, or in this case, viewing an advertisement—to be a passive one. All they have to do is sit back and absorb. This is, as we know, not the case. In fact, this judgment is a dangerous one; those who are passive absorbers of messages will be more likely to be amenable to those messages, to be defined by those messages. To become active analyzers of the world around them, my students need the background to identify the techniques within each advertisement they encounter; this identification can be the first step for their becoming critical consumers—consumers who can actively filter messages so as not to become pawns of those messages. Critical consumers do not necessarily reject messages for their logical fallacies or language of advertisements, but they do recognize techniques and evaluates the effect on their desire to “buy in” to the commercial’s product. All advertisements are selling products, ideas, lifestyles, etc., and the techniques employed all support that overall purpose.
One of the ways that this unit will be high interest to my students is that the subject matter will be relatively malleable to the commercials that they have seen and/or enjoy watching. Although I will use particular commercials for acquisition lessons and other such purposes (for example, the Chrysler commercial featuring Eminem from the 2011 Super Bowl)^1 , they can choose what commercials we use to transfer that information and those skills. This will increase their interest in the subject matter as well as their control in the unit itself. High interest and relevant material can only augment students’ learning during this time.
Demographics
Appoquinimink High School is a relatively new high school in the rural/suburban area of Middletown, DE. The high school itself started in a middle school building, encompassing all freshmen in the Appoquinimink School District. In 2008, AHS opened its doors to freshmen and sophomores. The first graduating class left AHS in the spring of
Because of its young age, Appoquinimink High School boasts state-of-the-art technology in most classrooms, as well as programs rivaling with the programs at vocational-technical schools. Each classroom has a television that connects to the teacher’s computer; many classrooms have projectors and SMART Boards. Teacher accounts have access to YouTube, an invaluable tool for showing things like commercials to the students.
By grade 12, my students will be familiar with the following rhetorical appeals within speeches and literature. The following terms will be re-introduced to my students in this unit through commercials; the “anchor” commercial I will use is Eminem’s Chrysler commercial from the 2011 Super Bowl 2. Students will identify the following appeals in commercials and employ them when they create their own commercials, which will be based mostly on one of the appeals.
Ethos
Defined as “the appeal based on the character of the speaker, an ethos-driven document relies on the reputation of the author”^3. Ethos also refers to the reputation of a brand (more appropriate for commercials) or the association with spokespeople with whom the audience would connect. My students will recognize that Eminem’s association with Chrysler, for example, appeals to his status as a rap superstar, and his being in the commercial transfers that credibility to the product being sold. Also, since Detroit is his hometown, Eminem represents someone who truly knows the ins and outs of a city about which the speaker in the commercial suggests others spread misinformation. Eminem’s ethos as not only a celebrity but also a Detroit native strengthens the ethos of the overall commercial (although the appeal to authority is logically fallacious. See below). The commercial also emphasizes Detroit’s being the “Motor City,” defined just as much by what it is not (the “Emerald City,” “the Windy City”) as what it is. The emphasis on “where it’s from” suggests that the Chrysler’s luxury, style, and overall appeal ties closely to Detroit itself^4.
Logos
Logos refers to reason or logic, or in other words, the reasons why the audience should purchase the product or service in question^5. Data, statistics, or claims within the commercial are examples of logos. The exploration of possible fallacies within these claims is located below under “logical fallacies.” Logos appears within the Chrysler commercial indirectly. Buy it because the car comes from Detroit, where the “hottest fires make the hardest steel.” It boasts “luxury” from “capable” people who know how to make a good car; it’s a party of their “story.” 6 The commercial does not directly list reasons to buy the car, however, which leads to omissions that critical consumers should find remarkable.
Mythos
Mythos is defined as “the underlying system of beliefs, especially those dealing with supernatural forces, characteristic of a particular cultural group”^7. In a rhetorical situation, mythos refers to the appeal to the cultural group (mainly, the culture of the audience) and that group’s beliefs. The Chrysler commercial focuses heavily on mythos, not only in statements but also in imagery. The American flag flying against a cloudy
morning, the businessman about to cross the street, the mural of (culturally mixed) individuals performing physical labor, the football team running in the snow, the ice skater practicing her passion all culminate in a subliminal “melting pot” of American ideas and values. The nod from the doorman to the driver of the Chrysler (not yet revealed as Eminem) suggests the respect and admiration the car deserves. The commercial’s narrator juxtaposes Detroit’s individual identity with its being “from America.” The end text boldly furthers the concept of this unique individualism by claiming that the Chrysler is “Imported from Detroit.” Connected to the ethos of the commercial, Eminem’s representing his “hometown” also appeals to Americans’ value of identify and loyalty to their roots as well as their country^8. The culmination of these examples suggests that this commercial is, in fact, driven by mythos, something I would ask my students to discuss since they, too, will be asked to focus more so on one appeal in their commercials.
Pathos
Pathos appeals to the audience’s emotions 9. This appeal can be found in abundance in commercials. Any time a commercial appeals to the audience’s emotions—the sadness at seeing an animal in distress (and the need to donate money to that animal’s advocators), the desire to have the latest technology (and therefore purchase the phone that makes the owner feel superior), and the excitement and exhilaration that comes with purchasing a once-in-a-lifetime cruise to somewhere (for a low price, of course!)—the commercial is utilizing pathos. Students may be very familiar with this concept, yet not have explicitly analyzed its effect on their decisions after viewing the commercial. The Chrysler commercial associates the feelings of pride with the car, although most of the pathos within the commercial stems from the steady beat of Eminem’s “Lose Yourself,” a song that ends with the climax of a Detroit chorus singing in harmony. The steady beat of Eminem’s song reflects the rhythm of a fast-paced human heartbeat, intended to associate passion and excitement with the car. The pregnant pause between the song and Eminem’s only speaking lines (“This is the Motor City, and this is what we do”) creates suspense and accentuates Eminem’s matter-of-fact conclusion to the commercial 10.
Logical Fallacies
Logical fallacies are “flaws in logic that often involve faulty facts and misrepresentations”^11. If students can identify these fallacies within commercials their critical understanding of the information they receive will allow them to be less swayed by every advertisement that comes their way. If my students can identify logical fallacies, they can better discern whether or not those logical fallacies have dissuaded them from “buying in” to the product, service, or idea that the commercial sells them. At least they will be able to evaluate whether or not a logical fallacy in a commercial would deter them from buying that product or service. Below is a list of common fallacies that students
When an advertisement constructs an argument that sets up an either-or situation, it could be implementing a false dilemma^18. This fallacy only discusses two options rather than offering the other options that a consumer would have. For example, “You can either buy this product or your home will never be clean.” This argument fails to credit other options, like buying another product, or cleaning the home in another fashion.
False Analogy
When an arguer “suggests that two situations or things are analogous when they might not be,” that arguer has introduced a false analogy. Although the speaker wants to connect the product or idea to another one with which the audience if familiar, he is guilty of this fallacy if he does not explain/make clear the points of comparison 19. In Kia’s Optima commercial featuring basketball player Blake Griffin, the Kia Optima is compared to a painted work of art in a museum; both are considered to be “impressive.” In reality, the car is not analogous to a painting of flowers in a vase^20. Although the incongruity purposes humor in the commercial, it also shows no support for the car itself.
Faulty Use of Authority
Sometimes arguments appeal to the authority of someone or something that is not an expert on the subject/product in question^21. This connects with “ethos” in that the spokesperson may be popular or an expert in a field but not regarding the subject in question Eminem is a famous hip hop/rap artist, but he is not an expert on automobiles. The appeal of his authority is not logical. Even if the connection between his expected expertise regarding luxury is the intended connection, the use of authority is still fallacious in nature^22.
Slippery Slope
This claim wants to communicate to the audience that if one step happens (or doesn’t happen), it will lead to several more steps. For example, “If we let children spend too much time on the Internet, they will become less intelligent, more prone to suicide and depression, and more likely to commit violent crimes”23.^ The evidence for these claims is absent from the claim, and therefore a logical fallacy becomes apparent. A comedic example of this fallacy is apparent in the commercial for the impact smart hard drive from Toshiba. If a man does not say “yes” to include the hard drive, a chain reaction will lead to a Zombie Apocalypse^24.
Appeal to Tradition
Sometimes an arguer will insist something has value because it is a tradition, rather than explore the tradition itself for validity^25. This idea is often in conjunction with the “mythos” of a commercial. Arm and Hammer advertises as a cat litter tradition that “your
mother” was a part of. Although it might be the best product, its timelessness does not make it better than other similar (and newer) products on the market 26.
Appeal to Change
In an appeal to change, the arguer insists, “some change must occur, despite significant costs and substantial evidence to the contrary”^27. This is more difficult to find in commercials regarding the entirety of this fallacy, although some commercials will claim that their products (for example, natural gas) are necessary for change, yet the commercial will not examine the cost to switch sources or to change a home’s system. Joe’s Crab Shack commercials suggest that eating at Joe’s is better than the “big boring restaurant chain”^28.
Language of Advertisements
The following language used in advertisements can contribute to logical fallacies and represent claims that my students should also recognize and evaluate as critical consumers. Although this language is relevant to the unit, it will not be a focus for mastery. The goal is to expose students to these conventions so that they can take them into considerations in their evaluations. They will use some of the following language in the creation of their commercials
The Weasel Claim
This claim refers to advertisements that use “weasel words” that “practically negate the claims that follow”:
Words or claims that appear substantial upon first look but disintegrate into hollow meaninglessness on analysis are weasels. Commonly used weasel words include "helps" (the champion weasel); "like" (used in a comparative sense); "virtual" or "virtually"; "acts" or "works"; "can be"; "up to"; "as much as"; "refreshes"; "comforts"; "tackles"; "fights"; "come on"; "the feel of"; "the look of"; "looks like"; "fortified"; "enriched"; and "strengthened"29.
These claims, upon analysis, are not as bold as they appear to be. “Virtually pain free” does not mean that a process is painless, and even one example of a weasel word can affect the overall persuasiveness of the commercial.
The Unfinished Claim
This claim indicates that a product is superior to or “something” than (quieter than, softer than, etc.) without finishing the comparison. Ford indicated at one point that its LTD was
necessarily make it better than other products. Also, its being run over by a Mac truck is not necessarily relevant to the uses some audience members might have for the product 37.
The “Compliment the Consumer” Claim
This claim indicates that the consumer himself or herself is “special” enough in some regard to deserve this product, this relying on flattery itself to sell the product 38. L’Oreal commercials boast the catchphrase, “Because you’re worth it!”^39
Classroom Activities
In order to begin the unit, I will need to refresh students’ memories regarding rhetorical appeals. In order for me to be prepared for the unit, I will need to make notes of which commercials would work well to show my students. Usually, I will spend more time analyzing television commercials shortly before I begin the unit, so I can use ones that my students have seen recently. I view commercials on TV stations that my students watch—MTV, VH1, BET, Comedy Central, E!, Bravo—and identify which rhetorical appeals are most apparent in particular commercials in order to prepare before the unit. Students will also choose commercials that we can view, although this gives the lesson a “cushion” so I still have some preparation. After we view commercials, I will build their knowledge by exposing them to logical fallacies and language of advertisements
Activity One: “Words, Ideas, and Phrases in Commercials”
I will begin the unit by showing the Eminem commercial, during which my students will fill out a graphic organizer word web that “splashes” the different words, ideas, or phrases that are associated with the car. For example, “hard work,” “luxury,” “Motor City,” “conviction,” and “know how” are words associated with the car^40. I have included an example of the word web.
When my students are finished writing the words associated with the commercial, I will ask them to identify which rhetorical appeal each word, idea, or phrase associates most with. For example, “hard work” might mostly associate with mythos; “Motor City” might best associate with ethos 41. This will help my students review the rhetorical appeals as well as identify rhetoric with commercials.
Assessment: I will collect and review students’ graphic organizers
Activity Two: “Rhetoric in Commercials”
After reviewing activity one’s identifications together, I will ask my students which appeal seems to dominate the commercial (ethos). Students will then take each specific example of appeals (mostly ethos) from the commercial and fill out the information identifying the examples of rhetoric, the type of rhetoric, and the evaluation of that rhetoric. I have phrased the evaluation as “How does it add value to the product?” to force my students to qualify their responses. If I had asked them to “evaluate the effect” of each of the rhetorical examples, their responses might be limited in scope. Phrased this way, the answer forces students to identify “hard work” as “mythos” which “associates the car with those who value putting effort into making a quality product”^42.
After using examples from the Chrysler commercial (see above in ethos, logos, mythos, pathos explanations for more examples), I will show other commercials to my students. These commercials will be those I had seen on the aforementioned TV stations earlier in the week, since my goal is to expose students to examples of commercials that they have seen recently. I will show a commercial and have students—with a partner— fill out another word web, categorize the words, discuss the rhetoric they identified within the commercial and then fill out the rhetoric graphic organizer. Then I will call on students to share their example and discuss the answers they input in the organizer. I expect that students will have a more difficult time with the evaluation of added value than anything else. I will focus on how students can qualify the value added to the product, giving examples of my own for the students. (The Chrysler commercial’s
- How might the inclusion of these fallacies encourage a potential customer who is watching the commercial?
- How might the inclusion of these fallacies dissuade a potential customer who is watching the commercial?
- Assume you would be interested in purchasing this product or service. Does your identification of these fallacies dissuade or encourage you from purchasing the product or service?
- Create an additional logical fallacy for this commercial. How might this fallacy persuade or dissuade the audience?
Activity Four: “Language of Commercials”
I will activate this lesson with a clip of George Carlin’s “Advertising,”^46 which is a presentational and comical list of language heard in commercials. Afterwards, I will ask my students what the relationship between commercial language and logical fallacies is. My goal is for their response to develop into how both drive the purpose of selling products and services, yet language in advertising is not necessarily illogical. Then we will view and discuss the different types of language in advertising. Each time we find an example, we will again discuss the effect that example has on selling the product (how does it add value to or detract from the product?). The students’ homework again is to watch commercials, this time identifying and classifying language in advertisements.
Assessment: I will collect the students’ homework assignment the next day.
Language of Advertisement Notes and Examples
Example Type of Language How does this language add value to (or detract from) the product?
Activity Five: “Project Assignment”
Students will be put in groups of three to four in order to create a commercial for a fictional product or service of their choice. Their task is to rely heavily on one (assigned) rhetorical appeal. In doing so, they may use language of advertisements, but they must try to avoid all logical fallacies. Inadvertent inclusion of logical fallacies will be identified
and evaluated by their classmates during their presentations. (I will not deduct points for inadvertent logical fallacies unless students; I am more concerned with whether or not students can identify them than I am that they use them.)
Assessment: group project.
Activity Six: “Presentations and Evaluations”
After a day or two to work with their groups in class, students will present their commercials to their classmates. During the presentations, the “audience” will identify and evaluate the rhetoric and language of advertisements. The audience will also actively look for inadvertent logical fallacies that their classmates included in their presentations. This assignment will allow me not only to assess how well the students create commercials using the conventions we have discussed in the unit, but it will also (and most importantly) allow me to assess how well they can identify and evaluate the conventions we’ve discussed, thus making them “critical consumers.”
Assessment: commercial presentations and evaluations of each others’ presentations.
Commercial Assignment
Your task is to create a commercial for a fictional product of your choice. I will assign your group of 3-4 people a rhetorical appeal that must drive your commercial. (Keep in mind, you will use other appeals, but this will be your main appeal.) Your commercial must be at least 30 seconds in length, and you will perform it in front of your classmates. Although you may use language of advertisements (example: endorsement or testimonial), you MAY NOT use logical fallacies. Your classmates will be diligent in identifying any logical fallacies that you inadvertently include. They will also evaluate the effectiveness of your conventions.
As an audience member, your task is to identify and evaluate your classmates’ commercials. Answer the following questions about each commercial presentation.
- Which appeal drove the commercial? Use textual support.
- Give an example of each of the other three appeals (and identify appeal).
- List any language of advertisement examples used in the presentation and identify them.
- List any logical fallacies your classmates inadvertently included and identify the type of fallacy.
RI.11-12.5. Analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of the structure an author uses in his or her exposition or argument, including whether the structure makes points clear, convincing, and engaging.
RI.11-12.6. Determine an author’s point of view or purpose in a text in which the rhetoric is particularly effective, analyzing how style and content contribute to the power, persuasiveness or beauty of the text.
SL.11-12.6. Adapt speech to a variety of contexts and tasks, demonstrating a command of formal English when indicated or appropriate.
Notes
(^1) “Chrysler Eminem Super Bowl Commercial – Imported from Detroit.” YouTube video,
2:03, posted by “Chrysler,” February 5, 2011, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKL254Y_jtc. (^2) Ibid.
- (^) Crewell, Dustin et. al, “The Art of Rhetoric: Learning How to Use the Three Main
Rhetorical Styles,” Rensselaer Polytechnical Institute (RPI), accessed November 12, 2011, http://www.ripi.edu/dept/llc/weblacc/web/project1/group4/. (^4) “Chrysler Eminem Super Bowl Commercial – Imported form Detroit.”
Crewell, Dustin et. al., “The Art of Rhetoric: Learning How to Use the Three Main Rhetorical Styles.”
- (^) Crewell, Dustin et. al. “The Art of Rhetoric: Learning How to Use the Three Main
Rhetorical Styles.”
- (^) “Chrysler Eminem Super Bowl Commercial – Imported from Detroit.”
- (^) Dictionary.com , s.v. “Mythos,” http://dictionary.reference.com (accessed November
12, 2011).
- (^) “Chrysler Eminem Super Bowl Commercial – Imported from Detroit.”
- (^) “The Art of Rhetoric: Learning How to Use the Three Main Rhetorical Styles.”
- (^) “Chrysler Eminem Super Bowl Commercial – Imported from Detroit.”
- (^) Laura Gray-Rosendale, Pop Perspectives: Readings to Critique Contemporary Culture
(New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2008) 71-
- (^) Ibid., 71.
- (^) “Xfinity vs. FiOS – the Way to Go,” YouTube video, :30, posted by “socool75,”
August 22, 2010, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ge3lFAF8sOM&feature=related.
- (^) Pop Perspectives: Readings to Critique Contemporary Culture , 72.
- (^) “No No Hair Removal – Your Painless and Cost Effective Hair Removal Solution,”
YouTube video, 3:59, posted by “SharonGWoods,” June 15, 2011, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KELVVzBDbb4. (^16). Pop Perspectives: Readings to Critique Contemporary Culture , 72-3.
- (^) “Julianne Hough Commercial,” YouTube video, 1:17, posted by “ClearHealthySkin,”
September 29, 2010, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TRMjvSxe1x8&NR=1&feature=endscreen.
- (^) Pop Perspectives: Readings to Critique Contemporary Culture , 73.
- (^) Ibid.
- (^) “2012 Kia Optima Blake Griffin Commercial ‘Impressive,’” YouTube video, :31,
uploaded by KiaMotorsAmerica, January 27, 2012, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=73W7q5NTug8&feature=relmfu.
- (^) Pop Perspectives: Readings to Critique Contemporary Culture , 73-4.
- (^) “Chrysler Eminem Super Bowl Commercial – Imported from Detroit.”
- (^) Pop Perspectives: Readings to Critique Contemporary Culture , 74.
- (^) “Zombies: the Ramifications of Yes (Official Toshiba Commercial),” YouTube video,
:35, uploaded by toshibaUS, June 30, 2011, http://www.youtube.com/user/toshibaUS?v=9JyN6Obi7eI&feature=pyv&ad={creative} &kw={keyword}. (^25) Pop Perspectives: Readings to Critique Contemporary Culture , 74. (^26) “Arm and Hammer,” YouTube video, :16, uploaded by “TheOrangeFlag,” January 30,
2011, http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&NR=1&v=8GOVxudL80U. (^27) Pop Perspectives: Readings to Critique Contemporary Culture , 74. (^28) “Parking Lot,” YouTube video, :16, uploaded by JoeCrabShackOfficial, May 19, 2011,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=be5GFBORI4Q&feature=related. (^29) Jeffrey Schrank, “The Language of Advertising Claims,” University of Mississippi ,
accessed November 13, 2011, http://home.olemiss.edu/~egjbp/comp/ad-claims.html. (^30) Ibid. (^31) Ibid. (^32) Ibid (^33) Ibid. (^34) Ibid (^35) “Julianne Hough Commercial,” YouTube video. (^36) “The Language of Advertising Claims.” (^37) “Billy Mays Mighty Putty Commercial,” YouTube video, 2:00, uploaded by
“crbenesch,” March 27, 2008, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkuReA-AGa8. (^38) “The Language of Advertising Claims.” (^39) “L’Oreal – ‘Because Your’e Worth It,’” YouTube video, :18, uploaded by
“kwashingtondotcom,” April 18, 2009, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=84SUfl8Yv4k.” (^40) “Chrysler Eminem Super Bowl Commercial – Imported from Detroit.” (^41) Ibid. (^42) Ibid. (^43) Ibid. (^44) Ibid. (^45) Ibid.
Curriculum Unit Title Author
KEY LEARNING, ENDURING UNDERSTANDING, ETC.
ESSENTIAL QUESTION(S) for the UNIT
CONCEPT A CONCEPT B CONCEPT C
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS A ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS B ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS C
VOCABULARY A VOCABULARY B VOCABULARY C
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION/MATERIAL/TEXT/FILM/RESOURCES
Analyzing Commercials: Recognizing Methods of Persuasion and Becoming Critical Consumers
A reader must use a variety of elements when evaluating and interpreting persuasive texts.
How can viewers identify and analyze elements of persuasion in order to evaluate the effectiveness of a commercial?
Rhetorical Appeals (^) Logical Fallacy Language of Advertisements
Access various commercials from YouTube in order to view examples.
How can I identify rhetorical appeals in commercials? How can I evaluate rhetorical appeals in commercials? How can I create a commercial using rhetorical appeals?
Jennifer Abernethy
What types of language do commercials include? What is the effect of this language in selling the product? How can I create a commercial using language of advertisements?
How can I identify and classify logical fallacies in commercials? What effects do logical fallacies have on the audience of commercials?
Rhetorical Appeals Ethos Pathos Logos Mythos
Hasty/Faulty Generalization Appeal to Tradition Appeal to Change Faulty Use of Authority Ad hominem Slippery Slope False Dilemma Ad populum
Weasel Claim Unfinished Claim “Water is Wet” Claim “So What” Claim Compliment the Consumer Claim Scientific Claim Endorsement/Testimonial Vague Claim
