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American Government – POLS1113- Study Guide Unit 2 Spring 2022 Contents: This study will include the following: review of key concepts, terms and definitions, and practice problems with answer key taken from Chapters 5-8. Most importantly, this guide will prepare students for taking Practice Exam Unit 2. All materials used in this study guide comes from Chapters 5-8. American Government Study Guide Unit 2 Chapter Five - Civil Rights Key Concepts Affirmative Action: the use of programs and policies designed to assist groups that have historically been subject to discrimination American Indian Movement (AIM): the Native American civil rights group responsible for the occupation of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, in 1973 Black Codes: laws passed immediately after the Civil War that discriminated against freed slaves and other blacks and deprive them of their rights Brown v. Board of Education: the 1954 Supreme Court ruling that struck down Plessy v. Ferguson and declared segregation and “separate but equal” to be unconstitutional in public education Chicano: a term adopted by some Mexican American civil right activists to describe themselves and those like them Civil Disobedience: an action taken in violation of the letter of the law to demonstrate that the law is unjust Comparable Worth: a doctrine calling for the same pay for workers whose jobs require the same level of education, responsibility, training, or working conditions Covertre: a legal status of married women in which their separate legal identities were erased De Facto Segregation: segregation that results from the private choices of individuals De Jure Segregation: segregation that results from government discrimination Direct Action: civil rights campaigns that directly confronted segregationist practices through public demonstrations Disenfranchisement: the revocation of someone’s right to vote Equal Protection Clause: a provision of the Fourteenth Amendment that requires the states to treat all residents equally under the law Glass Ceiling: an invisible barrier caused by discrimination that prevent women from rising to the highest levels of an organization – including corporations, governments, academic institutions, and religious organizations Grandfather Clause: the provision in some southern states that allowed illiterate whites to vote because their ancestors had been able to vote before the Fifteenth Amendment was ratified Hate Crime: harassment, bullying, or other criminal acts directed against someone because of bias against that person’s sex, gender, sexual orientation, religion, race, ethnicity, or disability
American Government – POLS1113- Study Guide Unit 2 Spring 2022 Contents: This study will include the following: review of key concepts, terms and definitions, and practice problems with answer key taken from Chapters 5-8. Most importantly, this guide will prepare students for taking Practice Exam Unit 2. All materials used in this study guide comes from Chapters 5-8. Intermediate Scrutiny: the standard used by the courts to decide cases of discrimination based on gender and sex; burden of proof is on the government to demonstrate an important governmental interest is at stake in treating men differently from women Jim Crow Laws: state and local laws that promoted racial segregation and undermined black voting right in the south after Reconstruction Literacy Tests: tests that require the prospective voter in some states to be able to read a passage of text and answer questions about it; often used as a way to disenfranchise racial or ethnic minorities Plessy v. Ferguson: the 1896 Supreme Court ruling that allowed “separate but equal” racial segregation under the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment Poll Tax: annual tax imposed by some states before a person was allowed to vote Rational Basis Test: the standard used by the court to decide most forms of discrimination; the burden of proof is on those challenging the law or action to demonstrate there is no good reason for treating them differently from other citizens Reconstruction: the period from 1865 to 1877 during which the governments of Confederate states were reorganized prior to being readmitted to the Union Stonewall Inn: a bar in Greenwich Village, New York, where the modern Gay Pride movement began after rioters protested the police treatment of the LGBT community there Strict Scrutiny: the standard used by the courts to decide cases of discrimination based on race, ethnicity, national origin, or religion; burden of proof is on the government to demonstrate a compelling governmental interest is at stake and no alternative means are available to accomplish it goals Title IX: the section of the U.S. Education Amendment of 1972 that prohibits discrimination in education on the basis of sex Trail of Tears: the name given to the forced migration of the Cherokees from Georgia to Oklahoma in 1838- Understanding Tests: tests requiring prospective voters in some states to be able to explain the meaning of a passage of text or to answer questions related to citizenship; often used as a way to disenfranchise black voters White Primary: a primary election in which only whites are allowed to vote What are civil rights and How do we identify them? The equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment gives all people and groups in the United States the right to be treated equally regardless of individual attributes. That logic has been expanded in the twenty-first century to cover attributes such as race, color, ethnicity, sex, gender, sexual orientation, religion, and disability. People may still be treated unequally by the
American Government – POLS1113- Study Guide Unit 2 Spring 2022 Contents: This study will include the following: review of key concepts, terms and definitions, and practice problems with answer key taken from Chapters 5-8. Most importantly, this guide will prepare students for taking Practice Exam Unit 2. All materials used in this study guide comes from Chapters 5-8. Fascism: a political system of total control by the ruling party or political leader over the economy, the military, society, and culture and often the private lives of citizens Favorability Poll: a public opinion poll that measures a public’s positive feelings about a candidate or politician Heuristics: shortcuts or rules of thumb for decision making Horserace Coverage: day-to-day media coverage of candidate performance in the election Leading Question: a question worded to lead a respondent to give a desired answer Margin of Error: a number that states how far the poll results may be from the actual preferences of the total population of citizens Modern Conservatism: a political ideology that prioritizes individual liberties, preferring a smaller government that stays out of the economy Modern Liberalism: a political ideology focused on equality and supporting government intervention in society and the economy if it promotes equality Overt Content: political information whose author makes clear that only one side is presented Political Culture: the prevailing political attitudes and beliefs within a society or region Political Elite: a political opinion leader who alerts the public to changes or problems Political Socialization: the process of learning the norms and practices of a political system through others and societal institutions Public Opinion: a collection of opinions of an individual or a group of individuals on a topic, person, or event Push Poll: politically biased campaign information presented as a poll in order to change minds Random Sample: a limited number of people from the overall population selected in such a way that each has an equal chance of being chosen Representative Sample: a group of respondents demographically similar to the population of interest Socialism: a political and economic system in which government uses its authority to promote social and economic equality, providing everyone with basic service and equal opportunities and requiring citizens with more wealth to contribute more Straw Poll: a informal and unofficial election poll conducted with a non-random population Theory of Delegate Representation: a theory that assumes the politician is in office to be the voice of the people and to vote only as the people want Traditional Conservatism: a political ideology supporting the authority of the monarchy and the church in the belief that government provides the rule of law
American Government – POLS1113- Study Guide Unit 2 Spring 2022 Contents: This study will include the following: review of key concepts, terms and definitions, and practice problems with answer key taken from Chapters 5-8. Most importantly, this guide will prepare students for taking Practice Exam Unit 2. All materials used in this study guide comes from Chapters 5-8. How is Public Opinion Measured? The purpose of a poll is to identify how a population feels about an issue or candidate. Many polling companies and news outlets use statisticians and social scientists to design accurate and scientific pols and to reduce errors. A scientific poll will try to create a representative and random sample to ensure the responses are similar to what the actual population of areas believes. Scientific polls also have lower margins of error, which means they better predict what the overall pubic or population thinks. Most polls are administered through phones, online, or via social media. Even in scientific polls, issues like timing, social pressure, lack of knowledge, and human nature and create results that do not match true public opinion. Polls can also be use as campaign devices to try to change a voter’s mind on an issue or candidate. What are some effects of Public Opinion? Public opinion polls have some effect on politics, most strongly during election season. Candidates who do well in polls receive more media coverage and campaign donations than candidates who fare poorly. The effect of polling on government institutions is less clear. Presidents sometime consider polls when making decisions, especially if the polls reflect high approval. A president who has an electoral mandate can use that high public approval rating to push policies through Congress. Congress is likely to be aware of public opinion on issues. Representatives must continually raise campaign donations for bi-yearly elections. For this reason, they must keep their constituents and donors happy. Representative are also likely to change their voting behavior if public opinion changes. Senators have a longer span between elections, which gives them time to make decisions independent of opinion and then make amends with their constituents. Changes in public opinion do not affect senators’ votes, but they do cause senators to lose reelection. It is less clear whether Supreme Court justices rule in ways that maintain the integrity of the branch or that keep step with the majority opinion of the public, but public approval of the court can change after high-profile decisions. Chapter 7 – Voting and Elections Key Concepts: Ballot Fatigue: the result when a voter stops voting for offices and initiatives at the bottom of Caucus: a form of candidate nomination that occurs in a town-hall style format rather than a day-long election; usually reserved for presidential elections Chronic Minority: voters who belong to political parties that tend not to be competitive in national elections because they are too small to become a majority or because of the Electoral College system distribution in their state
American Government – POLS1113- Study Guide Unit 2 Spring 2022 Contents: This study will include the following: review of key concepts, terms and definitions, and practice problems with answer key taken from Chapters 5-8. Most importantly, this guide will prepare students for taking Practice Exam Unit 2. All materials used in this study guide comes from Chapters 5-8. Voting Age Population : the number of citizens over eighteen Voting Eligible Population: the number of citizens eligible to vote Winner Take All System: all electoral votes for a state are given to the candidate who wins the most votes in that state What are benefits to voter turnout? Some believe a healthy democracy needs many participating citizens, while others argue that only informed citizens should vote. When turnout is calculated as a percentage of the voting- age population (VAP), it often appears that just over half of U.S. citizens vote. Using the voting- eligible population (VEP) yields a slightly higher number, and the highest turnout, 87 percent, is calculated as a percentage of registered voters. Citizens older than sixty-five and those with a high income and advanced education are likely to vote. Those younger than thirty years old, especially if still in school and earing low income are less likely to vote. What is Direct Democracy? Direct democracy allows the voters in a state to write laws, amend constitutions, remove politicians from office, and approve decisions made by government. Initiatives are laws or constitutional amendments on the ballot. Referendums ask voters to approve a decision by the government. The process for ballot measures requires the collection of signatures from voters, approval of the measure by state government, and a ballot election. Recalls allow citizens to remove politicians from office. While direct democracy does give citizens a say in the policies and laws of their state, it can also be used by businesses and the wealthy to pass policy goals. Initiatives can also lead to bad policy if voters do not research the measure or misunderstand the law. Chapter 8 – Media Key Concepts Agenda Setting: the media’s ability to choose which issues or topics get attention Beat: the coverage area assigned to journalists for new or stories Citizen Journalism: video and print news posted to the Internet or social media by citizens rather than the news media Cultivation Theory: the idea that media affect a citizen’s worldview through the information presented Digital Paywall: the need for a paid subscription to access published online material Equal Time Rule: an FCC policy that all candidates running for office must be given the same radio and television airtime opportunities
American Government – POLS1113- Study Guide Unit 2 Spring 2022 Contents: This study will include the following: review of key concepts, terms and definitions, and practice problems with answer key taken from Chapters 5-8. Most importantly, this guide will prepare students for taking Practice Exam Unit 2. All materials used in this study guide comes from Chapters 5-8. Fairness Doctrine: a 1949 Federal Communications Commission (FCC) policy, now defunct, that required holders of broadcast licenses to cover controversial issues in a balanced manner Framing: the process of giving a new story a specific context or background Freedom of Information Act (FOIA): a federal statute that requires public agencies to provide certain types of information requested by citizens Hypodermic Theory: the idea that information is placed in a citizen’s brain and accepted Indecency Regulations: laws that limit indecent and obscene material on public airwaves Libel: printed information about a person or organization that is not true and harms the reputation of the person or organization Mass Media: the collection of all media forms that communicate information to the general public Minimal Effects Theory: the idea that the media have little effect on citizens Muckraking: news coverage focusing on exposing corrupt business and government practices Party Press Era: period during the 1780s in which newspaper content was biased by political partisanship Priming: the process of predisposing readers or viewers to think a particular way Prior Restraint: a government action that stops someone from doing something before they are able to do it (e.g., forbidding someone to publish a book he or she plans to release) Public Relations: biased communication intended to improve the image of people, companies, or organizations Reporter’s Privilege: the right of a journalist to keep a source confidential Slander: spoken information about a person or organization that is not true and harms the reputation of the person or organization Soft News: news presented in an entertaining style Sunshine Laws: laws that require government documents and proceedings to be made public Yellow Journalism: sensationalized coverage of scandals and human interest stories What is the Media? The media encompass all communications that transmit facts or information to citizens and includes the mass media in print and on the radio, television, and Internet. Television takes many forms, such as local, network, cable, or satellite. Historically, programming was transmitted from networks to local stations and broadcast via the airwaves while fiber-optic
