Download A&P 102 FINAL EXAM 2025 SPRING-SUMMER QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS GRADED A+ (IVY TECH COLLEGE) and more Exams Anatomy in PDF only on Docsity!
A&P 102 FINAL EXAM 2025 SPRING-SUMMER
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS GRADED A+ (IVY
TECH COLLEGE) NEWEST!!
What is arteriosclerosis? How does it occur?
Thickening and hardening of vessel walls. Lipid and collagen fibers migrate into the vessel walls. Chronic disease of arterial system.
Describe the pathway of the cardiac conduction system.
The cardiac cycle begins in the right atrial wall at the sinoatrial node (SA node). After the SA node conducts an impulse, there is a very brief period before it is sent to the atrioventricular (AV) node. From the AV node, the impulse is sent down the interventricular septum to the Bundle of His, which conducts the impulse down the right and left bundle branches to the purkinje fibers which travel from the apex to the outer sides of the heart.
Describe an EKG. What is occurring within the heart during each part of the EKG?
A recordable tracing of the electrical activity of the heart that the production and conduction of action potentials in the heart produces.
What types of cells provide our immunity?
T cells and B cells
What is the function of lymph?
filters the blood by removing toxins
How does stress affect immunity?
With chronic stress, the immune system stays in low gear, leaving the body vulnerable to infection and disease. Basically, it suppresses it.
Compare and contrast passive versus active immunity.
immunity that results from the production of antibodies against a foreign antigen
state of permanent resistance
duration: long
immunity that results from transfer of antibodies from one individual to another
immunity only provides temporary protection
duration: short
Compare and contrast primary versus secondary immune responses.
Compare and contrast innate barriers versus adaptive immunity.
- Physical
- Cellular
- Chemical
Adaptive: Acquired immunity that develops in response to antigens. It is SPECIFIC to the antigen. Specificity is determined by B-cells and T-cells.
Describe the different glands associated with the lymphatic system. What are their functions?
Thymus gland - where T cells mature.
Bone marrow - where B and T cells are created.
Lymph nodes - clean and filter lymph and act as immune surveillance.
Spleen - consists of white pulp (packed with lymphocytes) and red pulp (blood, lymphocytes, and macrophages that fill venous sinuses).
Tonsils & adenoids - trap pathogens humans breathe in.
How does an autoimmune disease work?
An autoimmune disease arises when the body's cells lose their ability to distinguish between self and non-self antigens. When this happens, the body mounts an
immune response against what is really healthy tissue, (but they think is a foreign particle), and the body attacks itself causing tissue, organ, and joint damage as well as pain, fever, and swelling.
What is pus?
dead neutrophils
Who regulates pituitary gland secretion?
hypothalamus
What is a hormone and how does it act?
Hormones are chemical messengers that are responsible for regulation. They are secreted into body fluids, mainly blood. It has specific actions on target tissues, which are any tissue that has specific receptors for that particular hormone.
Compare and contrast glucagon and insulin.
Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down glycogen and convert noncarbohydrates into glucose and it stimulates the breakdown of fats.
Insulin promotes the formation of glycogen from glucose, inhibits conversion of noncarbohydrates into glucose, and enhances movement of glucose through adipose and muscle cell membranes, decreasing blood glucose concentration and
Describe steroid hormones.
Sex hormones and adrenal cortex hormones. Steroid hormones diffuse through cell membranes and enter cytoplasm or nucleus. Then they combine with a receptor molecule, which together bind to DNA and promote transcription of messenger RNA. mRNA enters the cytoplasm and directs protein synthesis. Newly synthesized proteins produce hormone's specific effects.
Describe tropic hormones.
They stimulate the activity of endocrine glands than those secreting them.
Describe normal blood: number of each cell type, pH.
Describe normal blood: number of each cell type, pH.
CLICK THE CARD TO FLIP IT
Blood is about 8% of body weight. Adult blood volume is about 5 L. RBC count is usually 4,600,000-6,200,000 in males, 4,200,000-5,400,000 in females. WBC are usually 5,000-10,000 per cubic mm of blood. Platelets are usually 130,000-360, per cubic mm of blood. Normal blood pH is around 7.4.
How does the Rh factor affect a developing fetus and its mother?
Rh positive - presence of antigen D or other Rh antigens on the RBC membranes.
Rh negative - lack of these antigens
If a mother is Rh negative and her baby is Rh positive, her antibodies form to fight Rh-positive blood cells. If a mother is Rh positive and her baby is Rh positive, her antibodies attack the baby's RBC. Complications can lead the baby to develop erythroblastosis fetalis or hemolytic disease.
What antigens can be found on RBC? What antibodies can be found in the plasma? How do these create different blood types?
Type A blood has A antigens on its cell surface and anti-B antibodies in its plasma.
Type B blood has B antigens on its cell surface and anti-A antibodies in its plasma.
Type AB blood has both A and B antigens on its cell surface and no antibodies in its plasma. (It is the universal recipient).
Type O blood has no antigens on its cell surface, but has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in its plasma. (It is the universal donor).
Describe the different leukocytes and their origins.
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Monocytes
Lymphocytes
Compare the formed elements of the blood.
B- give to: B-, B+, AB-, AB+ receive: B-, O-
AB- give to: AB-, AB+ receive: AB-, A-, B-, O-
What are normal levels and percentages of RBC, WBC and platelets?
4,600,000-6,200,000 in males.
4,200,000-5,400,000 in females.
4,500,000-5,100,000 in children.
RBCs are 45% of the blood.
Neutrophils
50%-70%
Eosinophils
1%-4%
Basophils
0-1%
Lymphocytes
20%-35%
Monocytes
3%-8%
Compare serum versus plasma.
Plasma is the liquid part of blood, in which blood cells, nutrients and hormones float.
Serum is the fluid part of blood, without the clotting factors or blood cells.
What is hematocrit?
percent of blood volume that is RBCs
How is the ANS used to regulate blood pressure?
The autonomic nervous system regulates the blood pressure via several mechanisms. It regulates the degree of constriction or dilation of the blood vessels in body. Constriction of the blood vessels will result in an increase in the blood pressure and dilation of the blood vessels will result in a decrease in the blood pressure. The autonomic nervous system also alters the cardiac output, which will influence the blood pressure. Cardiac output is determined by multiplying the heart rate x the stroke volume. The stroke volume being the amount of blood ejected from the heart with each beat. The sympathetic nervous system ("fight or flight" system) results in an increase in heart rate and strength of heart contraction leading to a greater stroke volume. This increased cardiac output results in an elevation in the blood pressure usually. The parasympathetic nervous system is the "rest and digest" system that results in a decrease heart rate and stroke volume, which results in a lowering in the blood pressure. So, the autonomic nervous system controls the blood pressure through a few mechanisms and they usually occur simultaneously.
What are the functions of the cardiovascular system?
The four major functions of the cardiovascular system are:
common iliac v., external and internal iliac v., femoral v., great saphenous v., small saphenous v.
At any given moment, where can blood be found in the body?
The veins
Describe the layers of the heart and pericardium.
The outer layer of the heart is the fibrous pericardium (also the epicardium). The inner layer of the pericardium is the visceral pericardium (it lies against the heart). And the outer layer of the pericardium is the parietal pericardium which lies against the wall of the pericardial cavity.
The heart has three layers as well. The innermost layer is the endocardium, the middle layer is the myocardium, and the outermost layer is the epicardium (also the fibrous pericardium).
Compare and contrast pulmonary, coronary, and systemic circulation.
Pulmonary, coronary, and systemic circulation all work together to provide oxygen to the body and the heart and remove carbon dioxide waste from both.
Pulmonary circulation is that which goes to and from the heart and lungs, oxygenating the blood and removing carbon dioxide from it.
Coronary circulation is the blood supply provided to the heart and it oxygenates the heart.
Systemic circulation is circulation from the heart to the whole body and back, dropping off oxygen to the body's tissues and picking up carbon dioxide to remove it from the body.
What terms are used to describe abnormal heart rhythms?
Arrhythmia, atrial fibrillation, bradycardia, tachycardia, defibrillation, cardiac arrest, palpitations, Supraventricular tachycardia (SVT), Ventricular tachycardia, and ventricular fibrillation.
Describe the pathway of blood into, through, and out of the heart- including valves.
The blood enters the right atrium from the superior and inferior venae cavae and the coronary sinus and as it contracts, the blood is pushed through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. From there, the ventricles contract, pushing the blood into the pulmonary semi-lunar valve and out to the lungs. The blood is oxygenated and returns to the heart by the pulmonary veins, into the left atrium. The heart contracts and the blood is pushed through the mitral (bicuspid) valve into the left ventricle. As the heart contracts again, the blood is pushed out of the left ventricle, through the aortic semi-lunar valve and out to the rest of the body.
Describe differences between T cells and B cells.
--B cells are most effective in fighting bacteria. Major function is to produce antibody. There are memory B cells that stay in the body for long periods of time
-esophagus (peristalsis pushes food to stomach)
-stomach (secretes acid and enzymes; mixes food with secretions to begin enzymatic digestion of proteins)
-small intestine (mixes food with bile and pancreatic juice; final enzymatic breakdown of food molecules; main site of nutrient absorption)
-large intestine (absorbs water and electrolytes to form feces)
-rectum (regulates elimination of feces)
-anus
Accessory organs:
-liver (produces bile, which emulsifies fat)
-gallbladder (stores bile and introduces it into the small intestine)
-pancreas (produces and secretes pancreatic juice, containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions, into small intestine)
-salivary glands (secrete saliva, which contains enzymes that initiate breakdown of carbs)
What are the functions of the digestive system?
digestion, absorption, elimination
Describe the different enzymes/chemicals used within digestion, where they are used, and what they digest.
Pepsinogen:
Inactive form of pepsin; secreted by chief cells
Pepsin:
Active enzyme that beaks down proteins into polypeptides; forms
from pepsinogen in presence of hydrochloric acid
Gastric lipase:
Fat-splitting enzyme, found in small quantities; action inhibited by low pH
Hydrochloric acid:
Produced by parietal cells; converts pepsinogen into pepsin
Mucus:
Secreted by mucous cells; provides lubrication and protects stomach lining
Intrinsic factor:
Produced by parietal cells; required for absorption of vitamin B
Describe the different types of motility and mixing within the digestive system.
Food is first mixed with saliva in the mouth and then is pushed down the esophagus by peristalsis. Then it is mixed with gastric juice and pushed into the small and large intestine where it is moved along toward the rectum by segmentation.
What are the functions of the accessory organs/glands in the digestive system?
Organs:
-mouth (mechanical breakdown of food; begins chemical breakdown of carbs)
What is heartburn?
when the gastric jucies backflow into the esophagus
Describe the nervous system's role for digestion.
Parasympathetic impulses increase activities of digestive system.
Sympathetic impulses inhibit certain digestive actions.
Differentiate between mechanical and chemical digestion within the different organs of the GI tract.
Digestion in the mouth is mechanical and also chemical in that it both breaks up food mechanically with the teeth and chemically with enzymes in the saliva. Digestion in the stomach is chemical as it mixes the food with gastric juice, including pepsin and HCl. The small intestine mixes food with bile and pancreatic juice, breaking food down chemically with enzymes. The liver produces bile, which emulsifies fat--chemical digestion. The gallbladder stores bile and introduces it into the small intestine--chemical digestion. The pancreas produces and secretes pancreatic juice, containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions, into small intestine--chemical breakdown. And the salivary glands secrete saliva, which contains enzymes that initiate breakdown of carbs (also chemical).
Describe the layers of the GI tract.
4 layers:
-mucosa (epithelium, connective tissue, smooth muscle)
-submucosa (loose connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves)
-muscular layer (smooth muscle fibers in circular and longitudinal groups)
-serosa (epithelium, connective tissue)
What is metabolic acidosis? How is it caused? How can it be corrected?
Metabolic acidosis: a condition characterized by a deficiency of bicarbonate ions in the body in relation to the amount of carbonic acid in the body, in which the pH falls to less than 7.
Caused: - Diabetic Ketoacidosis - Lactic acidosis - Starvation - Severe diarrhea - renal failure - GI fistulas - shock
Corrected: -correct underlying cause -discontinuation of thiazide diuretics - antiemetics -acetazolamide
What is produced during nucleic acid metabolism?
protein/polypeptide chain
How is water involved in metabolism?
Water is the medium for various enzymatic & chemical reactions in the body. It moves nutrients, hormones, antibodies and oxygen through the blood stream and lymphatic system.
