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The Complexities of Love and
Class in English Literature
Love and Marriage in the Romantic
Revolution
John Donne and the Romantic Poets
Romantic love was not an invention of the romantic poets alone, but the result of a complex transition from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment. The greatest poets of the Renaissance, John Donne and William Shakespeare, experimented with the complexities of marriage both in their work and their own lives.
Marriage in Shakespeare's and John Donne's Times
Getting married in Shakespeare's time was a complex process. His plays reflect a conflict between the old order, where fathers decided who their daughters would marry, and the new order, which was based on mutual love. The old order continued to exist, but the idea that it was right for a person to look for someone they loved became stronger.
In early modern times, marriage depended on wealth, class, and alliance. Fathers would choose partners for their daughters based on these characteristics. After the Reformation, Puritans and others started to advance the idea that marriage must be based on mutual inclination and love.
The Process of Getting Married
Before getting married, a couple had to obtain a church blessing, have the banns read (the announcement of their intent to marry in church for three Sundays), and then wait a month and pay a fee. Some people found this process too long, so they opted for a "Fleet marriage," which was a quicker, unofficial ceremony performed in a London prison.
Shakespeare's Own Marriage
William Shakespeare's marriage to Anne Hathaway was an example of an accelerated marriage. He was 18, and she was older and wealthier than him, which was profitable for William. Their banns were read only once, and they got married after two weeks, as Anne was already pregnant.
Shakespeare's Characters
Shakespeare's characters were not just stock characters. For example, Hero in "Much Ado About Nothing" was a woman who embodied devotion and loyalty, while Othello's love for Desdemona turned into a destructive obsession.
The Threat of Cuckoldry
The threat of cuckoldry (a husband being betrayed by his wife) had ancient roots. It was vital for a husband that his wife would not betray him, as it was essential that the wealth and property would go to their children and not bastards. Shakespeare's plays feature various examples of infidelity, such as in "Hamlet" where the king's wife marries his brother.
Bastards in Shakespeare's Plays
Bastards in Shakespeare's plays often have traits of mischief and are portrayed as villains. However, Edmund in "King Lear" is a more complex character, as Shakespeare allows the audience to look into his soul and see his torments, making him a more relatable character.
John Donne's Poetry
John Donne was a metaphysical poet who was born into a Catholic family during a time when being Catholic was not favored in England. He had a diplomatic career and a secret marriage that led to his arrest and banishment from London. Donne's poetry can be divided into two main categories: lyrics and religious poems. His love and sexual poems often make use of religious imagery and vice versa.
The Flea
"The Flea" is a seduction poem in which the poet uses a complex, almost philosophical argument to convince his beloved that having sex with him will not diminish her value. The poem is divided into three parts and features a playful, ironic tone, as well as a combination of profane and religious imagery.
The Deictic and the Lyrical "I" in John
Donne's Poetry
Deictic and Sense Impressions
In order to give the right meaning to a deictic, one needs to share the same space and time as the speaker. Deictic words like "this, that, her, him" refer to a physical context. Sense impression details, such as "a very hot room," also contribute to this effect.
A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning
The Apparition
When by thy scorn, O murd'ress, I am dead And that thou think'st thee free From all solicitation from me, Then shall my ghost come to thy bed, And thee, feign'd vestal, in worse arms shall see; Then thy sick taper will begin to wink, And he, whose thou art then, being tir'd before, Will, if thou stir, or pinch to wake him, think Thou call'st for more, And in false sleep will from thee shrink; And then, poor aspen wretch, neglected thou Bath'd in a cold quicksilver sweat wilt lie A verier ghost than I. What I will say, I will not tell thee now, Lest that preserve thee; and since my love is spent, I'had rather thou shouldst painfully repent, Than by my threat'nings rest still innocent.
The poem presents the speaker's vision of what will happen after his death. He imagines his ghost visiting his beloved, who he believes has been unfaithful to him. The speaker threatens that his ghost will haunt her, causing her lover to become tired and withdraw from her. The speaker suggests that the woman will be left alone, neglected and terrified, becoming a "verier ghost" than the speaker himself. However, the speaker chooses not to reveal what he will say to her, preferring that she painfully repents rather than remain innocent.
A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning
As virtuous men pass mildly away, And whisper to their souls to go, Whilst some of their sad friends do say The breath goes now, and some say, No: So let us melt, and make no noise, No tear-floods, nor sigh-tempests move; 'Twere profanation of our joys To tell the laity our love.
Moving of th' earth brings harms and fears, Men reckon what it did, and meant; But trepidation of the spheres, Though greater far, is innocent.
Dull sublunary lovers' love (Whose soul is sense) cannot admit Absence, because it doth remove Those things which elemented it.
But we by a love so much refined, That our selves know not what it is, Inter- assured of the mind, Care less, eyes, lips, and hands to miss.
Our two souls therefore, which are one, Though I must go, endure not yet A breach, but an expansion, Like gold to airy thinness beat.
If they be two, they are two so As stiff twin compasses are two; Thy soul, the fixed foot, makes no show To move, but doth, if the other do.
And though it in the center sit, Yet when the other far doth roam, It leans and hearkens after it, And grows erect, as that comes home.
Such wilt thou be to me, who must, Like th' other foot, obliquely run; Thy firmness makes my circle just, And makes me end where I begun.
In this poem, the speaker addresses his beloved, asking her not to mourn his departure. He compares their love to the movement of the spheres, which is "innocent" despite its "greater" magnitude. The speaker argues that their love is "refined" and "inter-assured of the mind," unlike the "dull sublunary lovers' love" that cannot endure absence.
The speaker uses the metaphor of the two souls as twin compasses to illustrate how their love can endure separation. The fixed foot represents the beloved, who remains steadfast while the other foot (the speaker) moves away. Yet the fixed foot leans and grows erect as the other returns, just as the speaker will be to his beloved. The speaker concludes that his beloved's firmness makes his "circle just," allowing him to end where he began.
Valediction: Forbidding Mourning
Historical and Cultural Context
The poem "Valediction: Forbidding Mourning" was written by John Donne in the early 17th century, during the Stuart period in English history. This was a complex and difficult time, marked by the English Civil War between 1649 and 1659.
The Stuart kings, such as James I and Charles I, tended towards absolutism and religious repression. They supported the Anglican Church, but persecuted both Catholics and Puritans, who sought to purify the church of Catholic influences. This religious tension was a key feature of the era.
Donne and his contemporary, John Milton, were prominent literary figures during this tumultuous period. Their works reflect the religious, political, and social upheaval of the 17th century.
The Poem
The poem opens with the speaker addressing the situation of a farewell between two lovers. The speaker suggests that it would be a "profanation of our joy" to share their love with the "laity" (those who cannot understand it).
The speaker then contrasts the quiet passing of virtuous people (death) with the more dramatic events on Earth, such as earthquakes, which "bring harms and fears" that people recognize and respond to. However, the speaker argues that the "trepidation of the spheres" (the movement of the celestial bodies) is "innocent" and does not cause harm, even though it is "much more remote."
The speaker suggests that "sublunary" (earthly) lovers cannot tolerate the absence of their beloved, as it would remove the physical sensations that animate their love. In contrast, the speaker and their beloved have a love that has been "refined" to the point that they care less about losing physical contact, as their souls are now "one."
The speaker then develops an extended metaphor comparing their relationship to a compass, with the beloved's soul as the fixed leg and the
acceptance of the Petition of Rights, which stated that the King could not imprison anyone without a fair trial. When Charles I ignored this agreement, it led to the English Civil War, which lasted from 1639 to 1649.
The Execution of King Charles I and the Puritan
Dictatorship
The clash between Charles I and Parliament ended with the execution of the King in 1649, a unique event in pre-modern history. The Puritans, who had gained power during the Civil War, did not execute Charles I's family, leaving the possibility of a restoration of the monarchy. Oliver Cromwell became a dictator, but when he died, his son Richard proved unable to maintain power. This led to the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II in 1660.
The Reign of Charles II and the Glorious Revolution
Charles II, who had lived in exile in Catholic France, favored Catholics and persecuted Puritans. His reign was marked by the Great Plague and the Great Fire of London, which the Puritans saw as signs of God's disapproval. When Charles II's brother, James II, also a Catholic, came to the throne, the Parliament invited the Protestant William of Orange and his wife Mary, James II's daughter, to take the throne, leading to the Glorious Revolution of 1688-89 and the end of the Stuart dynasty.
The Cultural and Literary Background
The period from 1640 to 1660 was the "age of the Puritans" in England. As Calvinists, the Puritans believed in predestination and a strict moral code, including a strong work ethic. In contrast, the Libertines represented a lifestyle of excess and indulgence, particularly among the aristocracy.
The 17th century was also marked by scientific discoveries that challenged received beliefs, as well as the influence of the Bible, which people tried to reconcile with the new scientific knowledge. The translation of the Bible into English, commissioned by King James I, was a significant development, as it made the text more accessible to the general population.
John Milton and Paradise Lost
John Milton, a Puritan and supporter of the English Revolution, wrote the epic poem Paradise Lost, which fuses Christian and classical traditions to offer a theodicy, or justification of the ways of God. The poem explores the themes of the origin of evil, the fall of Lucifer, and the temptation and fall of Adam and Eve.
The Creation Story in Genesis
God's Act of Creation
The book of Genesis, which is part of the Pentateuch, is attributed to the author Moses. God's act of creation is primarily an imposition of order on the pre- existing chaos. He separates the elements of darkness and light, water and land, and creates time (day and night). God creates through the power of speech - He speaks, and things come into existence. When creating Adam and Eve, God shapes them like an artisan, giving them the breath of life. God's creation is initially described as perfect and good, with creatures being created in the skies and waters first, followed by the creation of the earth and its animals. Humans are given a special role, with the command to have dominion over the seas and skies. In the beginning, humans were vegetarians, as killing was not necessary for sustenance. The seventh day is designated as the Sabbath, a time for rest and worship, setting an example for humans to follow.
The Second Creation Narrative
The second chapter of Genesis retells the creation story from a different perspective, focusing on the creation of humans. God creates a garden, the Garden of Eden, and places the first man, Adam, in it, giving him the task of caring for it and not eating from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Eve is created as a companion for Adam, and he is given the task of naming the animals, demonstrating his mastery over creation. The serpent, described as the most subtle of God's creatures, tempts Eve, and she and Adam eat the forbidden fruit, committing the first sin. As a consequence, God expels Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden, and they are forced to return to the earth from which they were created.
The Fall of Lucifer and the Temptation of Adam and Eve
The first three chapters of Genesis do not deal with the prehistory of evil and the disobedience of Lucifer (Satan). Milton's "Paradise Lost" speculates on how this came to be possible, portraying Lucifer as the "bearer of light" who becomes the source of darkness. Lucifer, the most perfect of God's creatures, becomes jealous of God and His Son, Jesus Christ, and leads a revolt against God, convincing a third of the angels to follow him. Defeated by the good angels, Lucifer and his followers are cast into the abyss, where Lucifer proclaims himself the "king of Hell," preferring defeat to being a servant in Heaven.
Satana sceglie di entrare nel serpente, un'azione che lo umilia profondamente in quanto deve abbassarsi a un animale. Satana pronuncia un monologo tipico del teatro elisabettiano, in cui esprime i suoi pensieri e la sua frustrazione.
Il Monologo di Satana
Satana confronta il suo destino con ciò che avrebbe potuto ottenere se fosse rimasto fedele a Dio. Satana sa di non poter vincere la battaglia contro Dio, ma vuole far cadere gli esseri umani. Satana afferma che l'unico modo per essere meno infelice è rendere infelici gli altri.
Adamo ed Eva nel Giardino dell'Eden
Il narratore presenta la coppia perfetta di Adamo ed Eva nel Giardino dell'Eden. Viene introdotta l'idea della "scala dell'essere", una gerarchia in cui ogni essere ha un posto assegnato da Dio. Adamo non vuole che Eva si allontani da lui, temendo che possa essere tentata da Satana. Eva si offende per la mancanza di fiducia di Adamo e alla fine cede alla tentazione del serpente.
Il Serpente Seduce Eva
Il serpente, assimilato a una nave, attira l'attenzione di Eva con il suo discorso. Il serpente lusinga Eva, facendole credere di essere sottovalutata nel Giardino dell'Eden. Il serpente spiega a Eva come ha acquisito la capacità di parlare dopo aver mangiato il frutto proibito. Il serpente convince Eva che mangiando il frutto non moriranno, ma diventeranno come dèi, conoscendo il bene e il male. Eva è tentata dalla bellezza del frutto e dalla logica del discorso del serpente.
The Ambiguity of the Fruit in Paradise Lost
The Contradictory Presentation of the Fruit
The presentation of the fruit in Milton's "Paradise Lost" is ambiguous. On one hand, the poet seems to be trying to prove that the serpent is guilty, yet the fruit is described as being highly inviting and beautiful. The tree bearing the fruit is called "the most beautiful tree" and the fruit itself is described as "the most fragrant" and "the most tasty." This creates a contradiction, as if the poet's aim is to blame the serpent, why would he describe the fruit in such an appealing way?
The Rationality of Eve's Monologue
When the serpent tempts Eve, she engages in a long, rational monologue, debating the qualities of God and the causes of things. This is unexpected, as Eve has been depicted as a "beautiful woman" and "perfect housewife," not someone endowed with "powerful rhetorical ability." Her thoughtful deliberation before deciding to eat the fruit is in contrast with the traditional view of Eve as a weaker, more easily tempted character.
The Climactic Moment of the Fall
The moment when Eve reaches out and eats the fruit is described as the "climax of the whole poem." This quick succession of actions, coming after her lengthy deliberation, is particularly dramatic and impactful. This is the moment when the fall of humanity begins.
The Consequences of Eve's Action
Once Eve eats the fruit, the entire earth and nature feel the blow. Eve has not only sacrificed herself and her husband, but the whole world. This raises questions about the nature of God, as it seems difficult to reconcile a God of pure love with such widespread sacrifice.
Eve's "Hubris" and Insubordination
Eve is depicted as a "glutton" who has transgressed completely. She feels elated and believes she will become wiser and more intelligent. This reflects the concept of "hubris," a Greek word defining the negative feeling of a human thinking themselves equal to a god. Typically, "hubris" is associated with male characters, but here it is identified in a female character, as Eve must be blamed for the fault.
Adam's Reaction and Motivations
When Adam learns of Eve's actions, he understands they are ruined. However, he chooses to also eat the fruit, cherishing Eve above God's commandments. Adam's motivations are crucial, as he is aware of the consequences but cannot bear to be without Eve, even at the cost of disobeying God.
The Transformed Landscape
After Adam eats the fruit, the once idyllic "garden of Eden" is described as "wild woods forlorn," suggesting a dramatic transformation of the landscape. This reinforces the gravity of the characters' actions and the far- reaching consequences of their choices.
structured as a series of letters, creating a more intimate and epistolary narrative.
The characterization in these novels also reflects the authors' different approaches. Moll Flanders is a complex character, a thief and a prostitute, whose actions are not always morally upright, while Pamela is a virtuous heroine who overcomes the obstacles of wealth and class to marry her master.
The Novel's Relationship with the Audience
The rise of the novel was closely tied to the emergence of a new reading public, which was not limited to the aristocracy. Defoe and Richardson's works catered to a wider audience, including the middle class and the working class, who were now able to read and write due to the establishment of grammar schools.
The authors' aim was to both entertain and instruct their readers, with moral teachings often incorporated into the narrative. This reflected the changing needs and expectations of the reading public, who sought not only pleasure but also guidance on social and moral behavior.
Moll Flanders: A Comprehensive Analysis
The Setting
The setting of Moll Flanders is the historical time and geographical place of the story, which is the second part of the 17th century in London. Defoe provides a hyper-realistic setting for the 18th-century readers, as they had never encountered a story with such a level of detail. The author also includes specific details such as addresses and objects, which add to the sense of verisimilitude and convince the readers of the truthfulness of the story.
Narrative Structure
Moll Flanders is presented as an autobiography, with the protagonist narrating her own life story in the first person. The narrative follows a chronological order, starting with Moll's birth and proceeding through her youth and various life events. The story is structured as a long monologue, with no chapters, and an accumulation of episodes rather than a clear plot. Defoe's use of the first-person narrative and the autobiographical format contributes to the sense of authenticity and realism.
Genres and Influences
Moll Flanders is shaped by a combination of different genres, including:
Criminal Biography : Defoe drew inspiration from the popular memoirs of thieves and prostitutes, which were widely read by the
lower classes. These stories often featured detailed descriptions of crimes and the protagonist's fall into depravity.
Picaresque Novel : The novel shares similarities with the picaresque tradition, with the protagonist, Moll Flanders, experiencing a series of misfortunes and resorting to cheating, stealing, and changing her identity to survive.
Spiritual Autobiography : Moll Flanders includes an introspective and self-reflective component, which is a departure from the purely external action of the picaresque novel.
Conversion Tale : The novel incorporates elements of the conversion tale, with Moll Flanders eventually repenting for her past actions and starting a new life.
Themes
The main themes explored in Moll Flanders include:
Social Standing and Morality : The novel examines the difficulty of maintaining moral integrity when faced with poverty and desperation.
Gender and Society : The story highlights the inequality between men and women, and the limited options available to women in 17th-century society.
Sex and Money : The novel explores the interplay between sexual relationships and financial considerations, particularly in the context of Moll's various relationships and her resort to prostitution.
Personal Identity : The novel delves into the complexities of personal identity, as Moll Flanders assumes different identities and roles throughout her life.
Defoe's Preface and Narrative Techniques
In the preface, Defoe addresses the potential challenges of the genre, acknowledging the difficulty of presenting a "private History" as genuine when the names and circumstances of the characters are concealed. He also explains his intervention in the narrative, stating that he has "put into new Words" and made the protagonist's language "more modeste" to make it more acceptable.
Defoe's use of the preface and his narrative techniques, such as the first- person perspective and the autobiographical format, serve to enhance the sense of authenticity and realism in the novel, despite the inherent fictionality of the story.
Pamela by Samuel Richardson
Samuel Richardson, a printer and expert in letter-writing, wrote Pamela when he was 51 years old. The novel was a bestseller and the first soap opera in English literature, as it extended a real-life event into a lengthy exchange of letters. Richardson aimed to provide examples of how middle- class people should write letters for various purposes, including letters from a servant girl experiencing sexual harassment, which was the inspiration for Pamela.
Pamela: An Epistolary and Sentimental Novel
Pamela as a Novel of Events vs. Moll Flanders
Pamela is considered the first sentimental novel, while Moll Flanders is a novel of events. Pamela is an epistolary novel, created through a series of letters based on a real-life event. The story of Pamela is exceptional but still credible, combining entertainment, moral instruction, and aesthetic achievement.
The Story of Pamela
Pamela is a 15-year-old girl who is the waiting maid (donna di compagnia) for a certain Lady B. Pamela is very happy with Lady B, who is kind to her and the servants, treating them as part of the family. When Lady B dies, her son, Mr. B, decides to be magnanimous and not send the servants away. Mr. B is attracted to Pamela because of her beauty, education, good manners, and qualities that entice him. Mr. B, who is 25-26 and unmarried, intends to seduce Pamela and begins by giving her gifts that belonged to his mother. Pamela is grateful for the gifts but feels that they are obliging her to her master, as she may be expected to do something in return. Pamela's parents advise her to be cautious, as they are worried about Mr. B's intentions. Mr. B eventually disguises himself as a woman and hides in Pamela's room to watch her undress before going to bed. Pamela decides to leave the house and go back to her parents, and Mr. B grants her request.
The Role of Writing and Communication
The relationship between master and servants was similar to family, with masters acting as parents to their servants. Mr. B wants to read Pamela's letters to his parents because he wants to know her intimate and sincere thoughts, as he is convinced that these letters are the repository of the most private part of Pamela's character.
Mr. B tries to intercept Pamela's letters to her parents, reading them, stopping them, stealing them, or even contrafacting them. The role of writing and communication in this novel is paramount, as Pamela continues to write letters even when she is effectively jailed in another property of Mr. B's, with two guardians keeping her there against her will. These letters become a sort of private journal, and the fact that they are written in the present tense shows immediacy and intimacy.
The Advantages of the Epistolary Novel
The epistolary form offers multiple points of view, which Richardson will experiment with more in his second novel, Clarissa. The immediacy and intimacy of the letters allow for a more confessional and dramatic tone. The melodramatic tone, with its exaggerated feelings and neat contrast between good and evil, is a new narrative strand introduced in the sentimental novel. The villain, Mr. B, is presented as a complete monster, with no access for the reader to his inner thoughts and feelings.
Themes and Issues Explored
Virtue and respectability: Pamela's resistance to Mr. B's desires is contrasted with his loss of virtue and respectability. Gender issues: Pamela faces the obstacles that women had to face, such as the need for employment and the lack of self-determination. Class politics: Pamela accepts class differences but has a deep understanding of the duties and values of each class. Writing and communication: The importance of authentic and properly interpreted letters is related to the issue of power. The right to privacy and self-determination: Servants were treated like children of the family, with no personal space or autonomy.
Pamela as a Psychological Novel
Richardson manages to explore the intricacies of the characters' feelings, with characters saying one thing but meaning something else. The lack of an omniscient narrator requires the reader to infer the unsaid and unseen reasons of the characters, making Pamela one of the first psychological novels.
Sense and Sensibility: A Comprehensive
Analysis
The Novel's Background and Reception
"Sense and Sensibility" was Jane Austen's first major novel, published anonymously in 1811.
The dramatization of inner conflicts, where characters think one thing but are forced to say another due to social constraints, is a key technique employed by Austen. The depiction of social gatherings, such as balls, walks, tea parties, and visits, serves to dramatize the interactions and relationships between the characters.
Conclusion
"Sense and Sensibility" is a seminal work in the history of English literature, showcasing Jane Austen's mastery of narrative techniques and her keen observation of the social dynamics within the country gentry. The novel's exploration of the complexities of love, marriage, and class distinctions continues to captivate readers and scholars alike.
Jane Eyre: An Autobiography
The Novel and its Context
Jane Eyre is a Victorian novel published in 1847 by Charlotte Brontë, the eldest of the three Brontë sisters. The novel is presented as an autobiography, though it is a work of fiction. This was a common strategy employed by female authors at the time, as it lent an air of credibility and seriousness to their writing.
The Brontë sisters led a secluded life in rural northern England, influenced by both the religious imagery of the Bible and the natural surroundings of their upbringing. Charlotte Brontë achieved great success in the London literary circle after the publication of Jane Eyre, though she published the novel under the masculine pseudonym "C.B." to be taken seriously as a writer.
The Brontës' lives were marked by tragedy, with the early deaths of the two elder sisters due to illness, and Charlotte's own death at the age of 38 during complications from her pregnancy. This biographical context adds a sense of gravity and sincerity to their writing.
Genres and Influences
Jane Eyre draws from several literary genres and forms:
Autobiography
The novel is presented as the "autobiography" of the protagonist, Jane Eyre. While not a true autobiography, this narrative device lends the story a sense of authenticity and personal introspection.
Victorian Novel
As a Victorian novel, Jane Eyre considers a broad spectrum of the social pyramid, not just a secluded group. It engages with the issues and concerns of the day, making it a socio-political novel.
Romantic Marriage Plot
The novel features a classic romantic marriage plot, with the protagonist's search for love and fulfillment.
Gothic Novel
Jane Eyre also incorporates elements of the Gothic novel, with its mysterious, supernatural, and melodramatic elements.
Bildungsroman
The novel can be considered a Bildungsroman, or coming-of-age story, as it depicts the protagonist's moral and psychological development from childhood to adulthood.
Comparison to Other Novels
Comparing Jane Eyre to earlier novels like Pamela, we see that Jane is a more complex and psychologically nuanced character. While Pamela's options are limited to returning to her parents, Jane strives for independence and self-actualization. The level of introspection and internal conflict is higher in Jane Eyre than in earlier works.
Themes
Key themes in the novel include:
Love and marriage Sense and sensibility Sexist society and female agency Competition and social hierarchy Greed and materialism
The novel presents a range of female characters, from passive figures to strong, ambitious, and sometimes manipulative women, challenging the societal expectations of women at the time.
Jane Eyre: A Comprehensive Analysis
Narrative Structures
Title : The title "Jane Eyre" is presented as an autobiography, as the author wants to present the work as credible.
