Download Secure & Supportive Early Childhood: Optimal Development and more Study notes Communication in PDF only on Docsity!
In this Introduction, I explain the purpose of this book, its rationale and its structure. Each of Chapters 2–7 focuses on the curriculum content and pedagogy within an area of learning as identified in The Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage (DfES, 2007:7). This Introduction deals with the current political and operational con- text, and it addresses the key issues which affect young children’s learning and which are evident in the discussion throughout this book. These issues are:
This book takes its structure from the The Early Years Foundation Stage document and it aims to support practitioners with an overview of the six areas of learning along with a consideration of the relevant subject knowledge and ‘developmentally appropriate’ peda- gogy. It will help students and practitioners to make useful connections between the Early Years Foundation Stage requirements and the National Curriculum for Key Stage 1, and with the traditional body of knowledge which has informed learning in early childhood education. The book provides new insights from recent research that are relevant to teach- ing and learning within the 3–7 age range and, we believe, this book is highly relevant to early years practitioners in pre-school, reception and Years 1 and 2 classrooms. Chapter 1 deals with the foundations of early learning and includes a discussion of the following:
xv
Introduction
Jeni Riley
’Every child deserves the best possible start in life and support to fulfil their potential. A child’s experience in the early yars has a major impact on their future life chances. A secure, safe and happy childhood is important in its own right, and it provides the foundation for children to make the most of their abilities as they grow up.’ (DfES, 2007:2)
l the potential of play-based activities; l the importance of the practitioners’ subject knowledge; and l information and communications technology and learning in the early years of education.
10522_A01.QXD 20/4/07 2:10 pm Page xv
The social and political context for early years education
Since the publication of the first edition of Learning in the Early Years , government energy and investment has been directed towards services and provision for the youngest members of society in England. The House of Commons Education and Skills Committee (HCESC) report Every Child Matters (2005) instigated comprehensive reform for children’s services. Key underpinning principles – all garnering very broad support in the evidence we have received – include: more closely integrated frontline delivery of education, health, social and specialist services; earlier intervention to provide support before problems become serious; closer working between professionals who might be involved with the same child or young person; more coherent planning and com- missioning of services at the combined local level – the establishment of Children’s Trusts (or similar arrangements) to support this; and greater involvement of chil- dren, parents and carers in the development of services. (HCESC, 2005: 3) The catalyst for Every Child Matters was a response to the Laming Enquiry into the tragic death of Victoria Climbié through, essentially, a failure in communication between a variety of services. This visionary report proposed long-awaited reform to the patchy, fragmented provision of children’s services across the country. Every Child Matters (ECM) has wide-reaching implications for education, health, social services, voluntary and community organizations and other agencies, although to many of the professionals working in these services ECM was long overdue. The report explored the broad issues of organizational and professional integration, information and management and the needs of parents and children, specifically:
- The place of health, social services and education respectively within the integrated services;
- The practical implications of the ‘duty to collaborate’, including funding streams and location of staff and facilities;
- Staff and management needs: team building, leadership and training;
- Inspection;
Learning in the Early Years 3–
xvi
l The responsibility we have to maximize each child’s astonishing potential as demonstrated by recent scientific studies on the brain. l The idea of a changing concept of childhood and different views on the child’s place in society today. l Issues about effective teaching and learning in the early years of education focused on the role of the adult in supporting the child’s development and thinking.
10522_A01.QXD 20/4/07 2:10 pm Page xvi
Why was it important to write this book?
The rationale for the book
The education children experience during the earliest years of their life lays the foun- dations for all that follows. The nature and quality of the care, the experiences and the learning opportunities that are offered to children, from their birth and then onwards through infancy and early childhood, affect their educational potential and their life chances in a profound and lasting way. The recognition, by both wider public opinion and the government, of the vital importance of the early years has resulted in a mas- sively heightened interest in the quality of early childhood provision and education. Driven by this concern, substantial funding has been allocated to developing early childhood education and services. Considerable energy and effort have been directed into rationalizing, standardizing and improving the many and diverse services which at present cater for children before they reach full-time, mainstream primary educa- tion. Additional resources have been made available:
The government’s introduction of an official Foundation Stage (0–5 years, prior to the statutory National Curriculum), along with its associated document, The Early Years Foundation Stage further demonstrates a determination to improve the educational pro- vision and learning opportunities for all children in the 0–5-year age range. This book deals with the way, in practice, this guidance can complement both the National Curriculum (DfEE, 1999) document at Key Stage 1 (5–7 years) and the Primary National Strategy (DfES 2006). In a situation where there is increasingly tough competition for public funds, what has convinced a government that this immense commitment will be rewarded?
Evidence of the benefits of early childhood education
There have been many studies of interventions in early childhood education (see Ramey and Ramey, 1998) but one particular longitudinal study undertaken in the USA provides convincing evidence on the long-lasting value of pre-school education. The High/Scope Perry Pre-school evaluation (Schweinhart et al., 1993) is a robustly designed intervention programme and associated evaluation with a random sample of
Learning in the Early Years 3–
xviii
l for the integration of childcare and educational provision; l for intervention projects with both the babies and their parents in UK’s most economically deprived areas (for example the Sure Start initiative); and l to improve the quality and to upgrade the professional training of the adults working within the early years sector.
10522_A01.QXD 20/4/07 2:10 pm Page xviii
123 participating individuals who at the time were living in deprived circumstances. The evaluation has provided extensive data over a wide variety of real-life measures covering a long time span. Analyses of the data (which were collected annually from children 3–11, and then at 14, 15, 19 and 27) show the indisputable long-term benefits of an early educational intervention for children brought up in poverty and at high risk of school failure. The High/Scope study has also famously shown the impressive cost benefits to society of early intervention. The programme participants were more successful at school compared with those individuals who were living in the same cir- cumstances but who had not received the educational programme. This was demonstrated by the participants:
At 27 years of age, participants in the High/Scope Programme:
Although these findings have been very influential, more precise evidence is needed. For example, are the benefits so striking because this study was conducted on a very deprived group of people? Are all early education programmes equally effective? If not, then what appear to be the key features of an effective pre-school programme?
Features of effective pre-school provision
Ramey and Ramey (1998) suggest that there are six ‘developmental priming mecha- nisms’ with a potential role to enhance learning:
1 encouragement to explore the environment; 2 mentoring basic intellectual and social skills; 3 celebrating new skills; 4 rehearsing and expanding new skills; 5 protection from inappropriate punishment or ridicule for developmental advances; and 6 stimulation in language and symbolic communication.
n Introduction
xix
l being less likely to be placed in programmes for mental impairment; l having higher average school grades; l graduating on time from high school more successfully; and l having higher levels of literacy by the end of secondary education.
l were earning a higher salary; l were more likely to own their homes; l were less likely to receive social service support; and l had a lower rate of involvement with crime.
10522_A01.QXD 20/4/07 2:10 pm Page xix
The range of attainment shown at school entry
Details of the span of attainment at school entry across and within the different groups of children are discussed fully by Tymms (1999; 2002) and make compulsive reading. To take a few examples, in spoken language, some children starting school do not know or use basic and commonly used household words, while others have in their vocabulary such words as saxophone, jewellery and cosmetics. Some children have a very limited understanding of how books and print work, while one child in 500 is able to read a long passage fluently. In mathematics, one child in five cannot recognize the number 4 but one in a hundred knows the number 164.
The particular and long-lasting importance of the reception year
The design of the PIPS research project measured the reception pupils’ progress and found that it is very rapid. Not only that, but the progress made in the first year of school is the greatest that pupils achieve over the entire seven years of primary school. In addition to this, some schools and their teachers have a greater effect on the progress made over and above what might be expected from the children’s entry scores. In other words, in terms of a ‘value-added’ effect (that is, the influence of a school or a teacher which exceeds that which might be expected from a class of pupils’ beginning-of-school-year scores) there is as much as a 40 per cent variance in the rela- tive progress made. This percentage is extremely high. In comparison with this figure of 40 per cent, school effectiveness research at secondary level indicates that a positive school/teacher effect is approximately only 10–15 per cent of the variance. The important point to make is that the school and the teacher have the single and greatest influence on the progress made by classes of pupils. And the most progress occurs during the first year of school. Therefore reception teachers have an awesome responsibility: they need to build sensitively and knowledgeably upon the foundations that pre-school and home have laid, while also taking into account the wide individual differences in young pupils. Two smaller studies (compared with the PIPS project) investigating the progress made during the reception year in literacy (Riley, 1996) and mathematics (Aubrey, 1994) provide detail on some of the factors and processes which appear to lead to positive learning outcomes for new school pupils. The quality of the
n Introduction
xxi
l 85 per cent of these pupils start in the September of the academic year of school entry; l 7 per cent of school entrants do not have English as their first language; l the vast majority will have attended pre-school with an average of two terms at a nursery and just over a term at a playgroup; l approximately 0.7 per cent have been identified already as having special educational needs; and l 17 per cent are eligible for free school meals.
10522_A01.QXD 20/4/07 2:10 pm Page xxi
training and experience of the teacher is key. Children arrive in school with a vast store of knowledge but it is highly idiosyncratic and individual. Capitalizing on that knowl- edge is the key for children to make sound progress. Teachers need strong subject knowledge across the curriculum and to be aware of the appropriate pedagogy for teaching it. Early years teachers have to be skilled assessors of the children’s levels of development so that they can offer a close match of teaching with children’s levels of understanding. The findings of these studies described in this section support those from the REPEY study (Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2002). They also confirm the ideology and theories of early childhood education held for over a century.
Which type of curriculum is the most effective?
Debate exists about the type and content of an early years curriculum. What should be the main focus of education during the years 3–7? Clearly there will be a change of emphasis during this time span. But in which direction should educators place most of their energy? Should adults working with young children be encouraging them to become autonomous learners, or should they be concerned mostly with developing socially competent young pupils to enable them to cope and integrate into the com- munity of the setting? Or should greatest emphasis be put upon offering learning opportunities in the subjects of a curriculum? These aims are not mutually exclusive, naturally, but research evidence is providing answers here too. ‘Play is the work of the child’ (Froebel, 1876). Play-based activities as an effective vehicle for learning appear to meet all three of the above educational aims. Traditionally, play has a place at the heart of early childhood education as the recog- nized way that young children learn most effectively. It is argued that play offers opportunities from which children will benefit hugely, both cognitively and socially. On the intellectual side, play-based learning – because of its highly motivating, self- directing qualities – encourages engagement, concentration, task completion and the development of problem-solving abilities. Social and communication skills of negotia- tion and collaboration with peers are also demanded in many play situations. Play has its critics, however. Studies (for example, Bennett et al., 1997) have shown that play activities can be low in intellectual challenge and often repetitive and time- wasting for children, particularly in Key Stage 1. Researchers have found that infant teachers have an idealized, somewhat sentimental view of play, considering it to have educational validity at all times and in all circumstances but without a clear sense of how or why. It appears that some teachers under-exploit its learning potential. Debate whether play is as educationally valuable as early years teachers would like to believe comes from a lack of clarity about what is and what is not play. This despite many attempts at precise and comprehensive definitions! One way forward is a categoriza- tion of play-based activities developed in order to assess the educational value of play. How can activities which can be described as ‘playful’ be categorized?
Learning in the Early Years 3–
xxii
10522_A01.QXD 20/4/07 2:10 pm Page xxii
play bouts, using children in different forms of pre-school provision (120 children aged 3.6 and 5.6). They looked for the ‘task settings’ and ‘social settings’ associated with a high level (’yield’) of cognitively challenging and complex play. Their main findings lead them to recommend that:
The most beneficial situations in terms of the level of the cognitive demand on the child and which led to intellectual gains include construction materials of all kinds, structured tasks and art activities, as well as pretend play and small-world play; and set- tings in which a child interacts with a peer or adult. The categories Sylva and colleagues developed aimed to take account of the com- plexity within both social and cognitive dimensions in the following way:
Activities which meet the criteria potentially offer valuable learning opportunities for children to develop in a variety of ways and across a range of dimensions. However, progress depends upon the level of intellectual and social maturity of the children, and the relationship between it and the activity in which they are engaged.
Learning in the Early Years 3–
xxiv
l activities should have a clear goal structure; l children should work in pairs; and l adults should have a tutorial role.
The context for observation – the social setting l child alone; l child parallel; l child–child pair; l child in child group; l child in child group plus adult; and l child–adult pair.
The context for observation – the task setting l structured materials; l pretend; l small construction; l art; l large construction; l manipulation; l gross motor play; l informal games; l scale-version toys; l games with rules; and l rough-and-tumble play.
10522_A01.QXD 20/4/07 2:10 pm Page xxiv
The importance of play
We return to the issue of the importance and nature of play throughout the 3–7 age phase in Chapter 1 of this book, with a particular focus on the research findings of the REPEY project (Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2002). This study shows that the children who made the most progress had been offered play-based learning opportunities which had both curriculum and social learning objectives and which were also intended to develop positive learning dispositions and communication skills. These children had developed best in effective learning environments and alongside adults who engaged with them in mutually enjoyable ‘sustained shared thinking’. The Department for Education and Skills is convinced that play is an appropriate way for valuable learning to occur in the Foundation Stage, so much so that play is in place within the official advice given to practitioners, which states that:
Through play children can: l explore and represent learning experiences that help them make sense of the world; l practise and build up ideas, concepts and skills; l learn how to understand the need for rules; l be alone, be alongside others or co-operate as they talk or rehearse their feelings; l take risks and make mistakes; l think creatively and imaginatively; l communicate with others as they investigate and solve problems; l express fears or relive anxious experiences in controlled and safe situations. (DfES, 2007: 8) And this probably understates the case; no mention is made here of the many opportu- nities that play offers for children to acquire knowledge and understanding across the entire curriculum. Play has the potential to be the major, unifying pedagogical approach for the child’s transition from the Foundation Stage to Key Stage 1. When playing, children are able to engage at a level which is best suited to them given the self-chosen, ‘differentiated by outcome’ and flexible nature of the activities. It is the practitioner’s responsibility to be aware of the range and possibilities of the learning potential of a particular activity. Adults must also observe and monitor the play, with individual children’s learning needs in mind, in order to ensure that sufficient cogni- tive and social challenge is present. The well-known saying of early years education ‘observe, support and extend’ holds true today. Let us take as an example children’s ‘socio-dramatic’, ‘fantasy’, ‘pretence’, ‘make believe’ or ‘symbolic’ play in both pre- school and school settings. Smilansky has showed that there are genuine gains for cognitive development in socio-dramatic play. She claims that it ‘activates resources that stimulate emotional, social and intellectual growth in the child, which in turn affects the child’s success in school’ (1990: 25). Role-play areas are an essential part of the learning environment in all pre-school settings and can and should be an effective and staple offering for Years 1 and 2 pupils. A travel agent’s shop, for example, offers
n Introduction
xxv
10522_A01.QXD 20/4/07 2:10 pm Page xxv
The content of the revised National Primary Strategy: Framework for Literacy and Numeracy (DfEE, 2006) is relevant and broadly in line with current research evidence and thinking. The Framework for Literacy and Numeracy are helpful to the adults working with chil- dren at these ages, particularly in terms of planning for continuity and progression. Recognition of the need for primary teachers to be well equipped with a sound under- standing of the curriculum now requires no defence. An extensive subject knowledge enables a teacher to select content, to identify key points and to offer multiple exemplars more appropriately. Such a practitioner is more accurate in assessing the level of the child’s understanding. Research shows that this type of teacher is able, also, to interest the children to a greater extent and to teach in a more engaging fashion. Teachers with strong subject knowledge ask more appropriate questions and are able to incorporate the pupils’ contributions into the lesson. Aubrey (1994) made a strong case that educators supporting the earliest years of schooling need to be equally well informed. She suggests that: Those who teach children in the early years may, however regard other criteria such as the way young children learn and develop at a particular stage as more important. Clearly taking account of young children’s interests, preferred activi- ties and out of school experiences as these relate to teaching subject matter is vitally important. Early years teachers may have different orientations to different subjects, as well as different knowledge bases, adopting a child centred approach to, for instance, children’s literature and history and a fact-centred approach to mathematics and science. (Aubrey, 1994: 5) Research evidence is highlighting further the vital importance for early years practi- tioners to be well qualified and with high levels of subject knowledge and expertise. This was recognized in the Every Child Matters report also. This ensures that practition- ers are able to plan rich learning opportunities for children in the 3–7 age range and to engage and support the learners through discussion and skilful, open-ended question- ing (Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2002). Research evidence has shown that children taught by adults of this quality make more progress than those who are not.
ICT and education in the early years
Children are early adopters of new technology. They always have been. (Kinnes, 2002: 50, cited by Mallett, 2003: 138) The debate regarding the effects of information and communication technology (ICT) on young children’s development and learning is being resolved. Convincing evidence is emerging from studies being undertaken by Developmentally Appropriate Technology in Early Childhood (DATEC) regarding the nature and the role of ICT for nursery children. The studies are providing examples of exceptionally strong practice. One study (Brooker and Siraj-Blatchford, 2002) cites many instances where children are delighting in and benefiting across a variety of subject domains and dimensions of
n Introduction
xxvii
10522_A01.QXD 20/4/07 2:10 pm Page xxvii
learning. Software packages, such as Henry’s Party (Marshall Media, 1995) and Tizzy’s Toybox (Sherston Software, 1997), appear to have been particularly valuable. The first program offers a series of locations to visit, in which clicking on items produces a huge range of effects and interactions, based on ‘helping’ characters (such as farm animals) to find and sort objects. From the findings from the DATEC research project, Iram and John Siraj-Blatchford suggest that the applications with the greatest potential to support leaning in the early years of education:
- Were educational- applications employed in the early years should be educa- tional in nature and this effectively excludes all applications where clear learning aims cannot be identified. For example, it was found that, however entertaining, most arcade type games provided little encouragement of creativ- ity, or indeed any other worthwhile learning outcome
- Encouraged collaboration – in the early years we know that activities which provide contexts for collaboration are especially important
- Supported integration – with an integrated approach to ICT we present ICT products as tools
- Supported play – play and imitation are primary contexts for representational and symbolic behaviour, and role-play is therefore central to the processes of learning in the early years
- Left the child in control – ICT should be controlled by the child, not control the child through programmed learning
- Were transparent and intuitive – applications should be selected that provide transparency: their functions clearly defined and intuitive
- Avoided violence and stereotyping – where applications fail to meet these crite- ria it would be difficult to justify their use in any educational context
- Supported the awareness of health and safety issues – where the use of a computer is integrated with other activities e.g. in socio-dramatic play, modeling, painting, etc. children benefit from greater movement and exercise away from the computer
- Supported the involvement of parents – studies have shown that when parents, teachers and children collaborate towards the same goals it leads to improved performance. (Siraj-Blatchford and Siraj-Blatchford, 2006: 9) Brooker and Siraj-Blatchford give enchanting examples of groups of children (aged 3 and 4) interacting as they work with the computer. The interaction, in turn, supports language development, promotes pro-social behaviour and assists the performance of less experienced peers. Also, the researchers found that the interaction aids collabora- tion and stimulates play behaviours. Just two examples are included here (Learning stories I.1 and I.2).
Learning in the Early Years 3–
xxviii
10522_A01.QXD 20/4/07 2:10 pm Page xxviii
debate, and the areas of learning and their relationship with the subject areas of the National Curriculum at Key Stage 1 (DfEE, 1999) are not straightforward or tidy. Some curriculum subjects might have been placed in two or even three of the Foundation Stage areas of learning – design and technology is one of these, ‘dance’ is another. Others are integral to the whole curriculum, such as communication and language. The authors of Chapter 7, when considering opportunities for creative development, acknowledge that creativity is not exclusively developed through the arts and design and technology. The purpose of this book, therefore, is to address the particular and potential contribution which certain subjects offer to the overall development of chil- dren and their education. The view of learning which has been adopted is a consideration of the development of the whole child through the lenses of subject spe- cialists with expertise in the early years of education. Finally, what emerges from this book is the complex relationship between a practi- tioner’s expertise across the curriculum and the quality of the learning experience that is offered to the children in the setting or class. We have aimed to inform, to delight and to inspire so that professionals can ensure that all children are given every oppor- tunity to maximize their potential through access to the diverse ways of knowing and being intelligent.
Further Reading
Wood, E. and Attfield, J. (2005) (2nd Ed.) Play Learning and the Early Childhood Curriculum. London: PCP/Sage.
References
Abbott, L. and Gillen, J. (1997) Educare for the Under Threes – Identifying Need and Opportunity. Report of the research study by the Manchester Metropolitan University jointly funded by the Esme Fairburn Charitable Trust. Aubrey, C. (1994) The Role of Subject Knowledge in the Early Years of Schooling. London: Falmer Press. Bennett, N., Wood, E. and Rogers, S. (1997) Teaching through Play: Teachers, Theories and Classroom Practice. Buckingham: Open University Press. Brooker, E. (2002) ‘The importance of play’ (Institute of Education, London, ITT Resource File, Appendix B), in The National Numeracy Strategy: Teaching Mathematics in Reception and Year 1. London: DfES. Brooker, E. and Siraj-Blatchford, J. (2002) ‘Click on miaow! How children aged 3 and 4 experience the nursery computer’, Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood , 3(2): 251–72. Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) (1998) The National Literacy Strategy: Framework for Teaching. London: DfEE. Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) (1999) The National Numeracy Strategy: Framework for Teaching. London: DfEE.
Learning in the Early Years 3–
xxx
10522_A01.QXD 20/4/07 2:10 pm Page xxx
Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) (1999) The National Curriculum. London: HMSO. Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (DfEE/QCA) (2000) Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage. London: QCA. Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2006a) The Early Years Foundation Stage. Consultation document. London. DfES Publications. Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2006b) The National Primary Strategy: Frameworks for Literacy and Numeracy. London. DfES Publications. Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2007) The Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage. DfES Publications. Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2007) The Practice Guidance for the Early Years Foundation Stage. DfES Publications. Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2007) The Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage. London: DfES Publication. Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2007) The Practice Guidance for the Early Years Foundation Stage. London: DfES Publications. Goldschmied, E. and Jackson, S. (1994) People under Three: Young Children in Daycare. London: Routledge. Hodge, M. (2000) ‘Introduction’, in Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage. London: QCA. House of Commons Education and Skills Committee (HCESC) (2005) Every Child Matters. Ninth Report of Session 2004–05. London: The Stationery Office. Marshall Media (1995) Henry’s Party. Computer software package. Parten, M.B. (1932) ‘Social participation among pre-school children’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 27: 243–69. Ramey, C. and Ramey, S.L. (1998) ‘Early intervention and early experience’, American Psychologist , 53(2): 109–20. Riley, J.L. (1996) The Teaching of Reading: The Development of Literacy. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Schweinhart, L.J., Barnes, H.V. and Weikart, D.P. (1993) Significant Benefits: The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study through Age 27. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Education Research Foundation. Sherston Software (1997) Tizzy’s Toybox. Computer software package. Siraj-Blatchford, I. and Siraj-Blatchford, J. (2006) A Guide to Developing the ICT Curriculum for Early Childhood Education. London: Trentham Book and BAECE Siraj-Blatchford, I., Sylva, K., Muttock, S., Gilden, R. and Bell, D. (2002) Researching Effective Pedagogy in the Early Years. DfES Research Brief 356. London: HMSO. Smilansky, S. (1968) The Effects of Sociodramatic Play on Disadvantaged Pre-school Children. New York: John Wiley. Smilansky, S. (1990) ‘Socio-dramatic play: its relevance to behaviour and achievement in school’, in E. Klugman and S. Smilansky (eds), Children’s Play and Learning: Perspectives and Policy Implications. New York: Teachers College Press. Sylva, K., Roy, C. and Painter, M. (1980) Childwatching at Playgroup and Nursery School. London: Grant McIntyre. Tymms, P. (1999) Baseline Assessment and Monitoring in Primary Schools: Achievements, Attitudes and Value- added Indicators. London: David Fulton. Tymms, P. (2002) ‘The attainments and progress of children starting school. Research review’, Interplay , Spring: 35–8.
n Introduction
xxxi
10522_A01.QXD 20/4/07 2:10 pm Page xxxi
